Anti-Chinese sentiment

Coconuts Media reported in April 2022 of online groups in the country targeting Chinese-Indonesian women for racialised sexual abuse.^[134] On the other hand, a 2022 online poll done by Palacký University Olomouc had little more than 20% of Indonesian respondents viewing China negatively while over 70% held a positive view.^[135][136]

Myanmar

The ongoing

In November 2023, pro junta supporters held protests in Naypyidaw and Yangon accusing China of supporting Operation 1027 rebels,^[142][143] with some Yangon protesters threatening to attack China for its support.^[144]

Thailand

Historically, Thailand (called Siam before 1939) has been seen as a China-friendly country, owing to close Chinese-Siamese relations, a large proportion of the Thai population being of Chinese descent and Chinese having been assimilated into mainstream society over the years. However, in the 20th century, Plaek Phibunsongkhram launched a massive Thaification, the main purpose of which was Central Thai supremacy, including the oppression of Thailand's Chinese population and restricting Thai Chinese culture by banning the teaching of the Chinese language and forcing Thai Chinese to adopt Thai names.^[145] Plaek's obsession with creating a pan-Thai nationalist agenda caused resentment among general officers (most of Thai general officers at the time were of Teochew background) until he was removed from office in 1944.^[146] Since that, mainstream culture of the nation from the Central Thai people was replaced by Thai Chinese, and Central Thai face discrimination instead, although the Cold War may have inflamed hostility towards the Mainland Chinese.^{[citation needed]}

Hostility towards the mainland Chinese increased with the increase of visitors from China in 2013.^[147][148] It has also been worsened by Thai news reports and social media postings on misbehaviour from a portion of the tourists.^[149][150] In spite of this, two reports have suggested that there are still some Thais who have positive impressions of Chinese tourists.^[151][152]

Vietnam

Shortly after the Vietnamese War ended in 1975, the Vietnamese government aggressively persecuted the Chinese community by confiscating property and businesses owned by overseas Chinese in Vietnam and expelling the ethnic Chinese minority into southern Chinese provinces.^[153]

There are strong anti-Chinese sentiments among the Vietnamese population, stemming in part from

According to journalist Daniel Gross, anti-Chinese sentiment is omnipresent in modern Vietnam, where "from school kids to government officials, China-bashing is very much in vogue." He reports that a majority of Vietnamese resent the import and usage of Chinese products, considering them of distinctly low status.^[166] A 2013 book on varying host perceptions in global tourism has also referenced negativity from Vietnamese hosts towards Chinese tourists, where the latter were seen as "making a lot more requests, complaints and troubles than other tourists"; the views differed from the much more positive perceptions of young Tibetan hosts at Lhasa towards mainland Chinese visitors in 2011.^[167]

In 2019, Chinese media was accused by the local press of appropriating or claiming Áo Dài, which angered many Vietnamese.^[168][169]

South Asia

Afghanistan

According to The Diplomat in 2014, the Xinjiang conflict had increased anti-China sentiment in Afghanistan.^[170] A 2020 Gallup International poll of 44 countries found that 46% of Afghans viewed China's foreign policy as destabilizing to the world, compared to 48% who viewed it as stabilizing.^[171][172]

Nepal

Chinese outlet

The relationship between Bhutan and China has historically been tense and past events have led to anti-Chinese sentiment within the country. Notably, the Chinese government's destruction of Tibetan Buddhist institutions in Tibet in 1959 led to a wave of anti-Chinese sentiment in the country.^[175] In 1960, the PRC published a map in A Brief History of China, depicting a sizable portion of Bhutan as "a pre-historical realm of China" and released a statement claiming the Bhutanese "form a united family in Tibet" and "they must once again be united and taught the communist doctrine". Bhutan responded by closing off its border, trade, and all diplomatic contacts with China. Bhutan and China have not established diplomatic relations.^[176] Recent efforts between the two countries to improve relations have been hampered by India's strong influence on Bhutan.^[177][178]

Sri Lanka

There were protests against allowing China to build a port and industrial zone, which will require the eviction of thousands of villagers around Hambantota.^[179] Projects on the Hambantota port have led to fears among the local protestors that the area will become a "Chinese colony".^[180] Armed government supporters clashed with protestors from the opposition that were led by Buddhist monks.^[180]

India

During the Sino-Indian War, the Chinese faced hostile sentiment all over India. Chinese businesses were investigated for links to the Chinese government and many Chinese were interned in prisons in North India.^[181] The Indian government passed the Defence of India Act in December 1962,^[182] permitting the "apprehension and detention in custody of any person hostile to the country." The broad language of the act allowed for the arrest of any person simply for having a Chinese surname or a Chinese spouse.^[183] The Indian government incarcerated thousands of Chinese-Indians in an internment camp in Deoli, Rajasthan, where they were held for years without trial. The last internees were not released until 1967. Thousands more Chinese-Indians were forcibly deported or coerced to leave India. Nearly all internees had their properties sold off or looted.^[182] Even after their release, the Chinese Indians faced many restrictions on their freedom. They could not travel freely until the mid-1990s.^[182]

On 2014, India in conjunction with the Tibetan government-in-exile have called for a campaign to boycott Chinese goods due in part to the contested border disputes India has with China.^[184][185]

The

The Chinese population was active in political and social life in Australia. Community leaders protested against discriminatory legislation and attitudes, and despite the passing of the Immigration Restriction Act in 1901, Chinese communities around Australia participated in parades and celebrations of Australia's Federation and the visit of the Duke and Duchess of York.

Although the Chinese communities in Australia were generally peaceful and industrious, resentment flared up against them because of their different customs and traditions. In the mid-19th century, terms such as "dirty, disease-ridden, [and] insect-like" were used in Australia and New Zealand to describe the Chinese.^[188]

A poll tax was passed in Victoria in 1855 to restrict Chinese immigration. New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia followed suit. Such legislation did not distinguish between naturalised, British citizens, Australian-born, and Chinese-born individuals. The tax in Victoria and New South Wales was repealed in the 1860s.

In the 1870s and 1880s, the Growing trade union movement began a series of protests against foreign labour. Their arguments were that Asians and Chinese took jobs away from white men, worked for "substandard" wages, lowered working conditions, and refused unionisation.^[189] Objections to these arguments came largely from wealthy land owners in rural areas.^[189] It was argued that without Asiatics to work in the tropical areas of the Northern Territory and Queensland, the area would have to be abandoned.^[190] Despite these objections to restricting immigration, between 1875 and 1888 all Australian colonies enacted legislation that excluded all further Chinese immigration.^[190]

In 1888, following protests and strike actions, an inter-colonial conference agreed to reinstate and increase the severity of restrictions on Chinese immigration. This provided the basis for the 1901 Immigration Restriction Act and the seed for the

The

A number of cases have been reported, related to sinophobia in the country.[192] Recently, in February 2013, a Chinese football team had reported about the abuses and racism they suffered on Australia Day.^[6]

There have been a spate of racist anti-Chinese graffiti and posters in universities across Melbourne and Sydney which host a large number of Chinese students. In July and August 2017, hate-filled posters were plastered around Monash University and University of Melbourne which said, in Mandarin, that Chinese students were not allowed to enter the premises, or else they would face deportation, while a "kill Chinese" graffiti, decorated with swastikas was found at University of Sydney.^[193][194] The Antipodean Resistance, a white supremacist group that identifies itself as pro-Nazi, claimed responsibility for the posters on Twitter. The group's website contains anti-Chinese slurs and Nazi imagery.^[195]

New Zealand

In the 1800s, Chinese citizens were encouraged to immigrate to New Zealand because they were needed to fulfill agricultural jobs during a time of white labor shortage. The arrival of foreign laborers was met with hostility and the formation of anti-Chinese immigrant groups, such as the Anti-Chinese League, the Anti-Asiatic League, the Anti-Chinese Association, and the White New Zealand League. Official discrimination began with the Chinese Immigrants Act of 1881, limiting Chinese emigration to New Zealand and excluding Chinese citizens from major jobs. Anti-Chinese sentiment had declined by the mid-20th century, however it has recently been inflamed by the perception that Chinese immigrants have driven up housing prices.^[196] Today, anti-Chinese sentiment in New Zealand mainly concerns the issue of housing prices.^[196] K. Emma Ng reported that "One in two New Zealanders feel the recent arrival of Asian migrants is changing the country in undesirable ways." There are considerable numbers of Asians who express anti-Chinese sentiment in New Zealand, which Ng attributes to internalized self hatred.^[196]

Attitudes on Chinese in New Zealand are suggested to be fairly negative, with some Chinese still considered to be less respected people in the country.^[197]

Papua New Guinea

In May 2009, during the Papua New Guinea riots, Chinese-owned businesses were looted by gangs in the capital city Port Moresby, amid simmering anti-Chinese sentiment reported in the country.^[198] There are fears that these riots will force many Chinese business owners and entrepreneurs to leave the South Pacific country, which would invariably lead to further damage on an impoverished economy that had a 80% unemployment rate.^[198] Thousands of people were reportedly involved in the riots.^[199]

Tonga

In 2000, Tongan noble

In 2006, rioters damaged shops owned by Chinese-Tongans in Nukuʻalofa.^[202][203]

Solomon Islands

In 2006, Honiara's Chinatown suffered damage when it was looted and burned by rioters following a contested election. Ethnic Chinese businessmen were falsely blamed for bribing members of the Solomon Islands' Parliament. The government of Taiwan was the one that supported the then-current government of the Solomon Islands. The Chinese businessmen were mainly small traders from mainland China and had no interest in local politics.^[202]

Western Asia

Israel

Israel and China have a stable relationship, and a 2018 survey suggested that a significant percentage of the Israeli population have a positive view of Chinese culture and people.^[204] This is historically preceded by Chinese support for Jewish refugees fleeing from Europe amidst World War II.^[205] Within China, Jews gained praise for their successful integration, with a number of Jewish refugees advising Mao's government and leading developments in revolutionary China's health service and infrastructure.^{[206][207][208]}

However, these close relations between the early

A Uyghur employee at a Chinese restaurant was attacked in 2015 by the Turkish Grey Wolves-linked protesters.[215] Attacks on other Chinese nationals have been reported.^[216]

According to a November 2018 INR poll, 46% of Turks view China favourably, up from less than 20% in 2015. A further 62% thought that it is important to have a strong trade relationship with China.^[217]

Syria

Although anti-Chinese sentiment is not widely common in Syria, the Syrian opposition has accused China of supporting the Government of Bashar al-Assad as China has vetoed UN resolutions condemning Assad's alleged war crimes; Syrian and Lebanese nationalists have burnt the Chinese flag in response.^[218]

Europe

China has figured in Western imagination in a number of different ways as being a very large civilization existing for many centuries with a very large population; however the rise of the

Anti-Chinese sentiment has experienced a new growth due to closer ties between the Czech Republic and Taiwan and led to a deterioration of the Czech Republic's relations with China.^[219][220] Czech politicians have demanded China to replace its ambassador and criticizing the Chinese government for its alleged threats against the Czech Republic, further worsening China's perception in the country.^[221]

France

In France, there has been a long

French farmers protested after a Chinese investor purchased 2,700 hectares of agricultural land in France.[224] A 2018 survey by Institut Montaigne has suggested that Chinese investments in France are viewed more negatively than Chinese tourism to the country, with 50% of respondents holding negative views of the former.^[225] 43% of the French see China as an economic threat, an opinion that is common among older and right-wing people, and 40% of French people view China as a technological threat.^[225]

It was reported in 2017 that there was some negativity among Parisians towards Chinese visitors,^[226] but other surveys have suggested that they are not viewed worse than a number of other groups.^{[227][228][229]}

Germany

In 2016,

Although historical relations between two were friendly and even Marco Polo paid a visit to China, during the Boxer Rebellion, Italy was part of Eight-Nation Alliance against the rebellion, thus this had stemmed anti-Chinese sentiment in Italy.^[234] Italian troops looted, burnt, and stole a lot of Chinese goods to Italy, many are still being displayed in Italian museums.^[235]

In 2010, in the Italian town of Prato, it was reported that many Chinese people were working in sweatshop-like conditions that broke European laws and that many Chinese-owned businesses don't pay taxes.^[236] Textile products produced by Chinese-owned businesses in Italy are labeled as 'Made in Italy', but some of the businesses engaged in practices that reduce cost and increase output to the point where locally owned businesses can't compete with. As a result of these practices, the 2009 municipal elections led the local population to vote for the Lega Nord, a party known for its anti-immigrant stance.^[236]

Portugal

In the 16th century, increasing sea trades between Europe to China had led Portuguese merchants to China, however Portuguese military ambitions for power and its fear of China's interventions and brutality had led to the growth of sinophobia in Portugal. Galiote Pereira, a Portuguese Jesuit missionary who was imprisoned by Chinese authorities, claimed China's juridical treatment known as bastinado was so horrible as it hit on human flesh, becoming the source of fundamental anti-Chinese sentiment later; as well as brutality, the cruelty of China and Chinese tyranny.^[237] With the Ming dynasty's brutal reactions on Portuguese merchants following the conquest of Malacca,^[238] sinophobia became widespread in Portugal, and widely practiced until the First Opium War, which the Qing dynasty was forced to cede Macao to Portugal.^{[239][note 2]}

Russia

After the Sino-Soviet split the Soviet Union produced propaganda which depicted the PRC and the Chinese people as enemies. Soviet propaganda specifically framed the PRC as an enemy of Islam and all Turkic peoples. These phobias have been inherited by the post-Soviet states in Central Asia.^[240]

Russia inherited a long-standing dispute over territory with China over Siberia and the Russian Far East with the breakup of the Soviet Union, these disputes were formerly resolved in 2004. Russia and China no longer have territorial disputes and China does not claim land in Russia; however, there has also been a perceived fear of a demographic takeover by Chinese immigrants in sparsely populated Russian areas.^[241][242] Both nations have become increasingly friendlier however, in the aftermath of the 1999 US bombing of Serbia, which the Chinese embassy was struck with a bomb, and have become increasingly united in foreign policy regarding perceived western antipathy.^[243][244]

A 2019 survey of online Russians has suggested that in terms of sincerity, trustfulness, and warmth, the Chinese are not viewed especially negatively or positively compared to the many other nationalities and ethnic groups in the study.^[245][246] An October 2020 poll from the Central European Institute of Asian Studies^[247] found that although China was perceived positively by 59.5% of Russian respondents (which was higher than for the other 11 regions asked), 57% of respondents regarded Chinese enterprises in the Russian far east to varying degrees as a threat to the local environment.^[248]

Spain

Spain first issued anti-Chinese legislation when

A Central European Institute of Asian Studies poll in 2020[247] found that although Spaniards had worsening views of China amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, it did not apply to Chinese citizens where most respondents reported positive views of Chinese tourists, students, and the general community in Spain.^[251]

Sweden

See also:

Kvällsposten as "Scanian of the Year".^[259]

Relations further worsened after the reported kidnap and arrest of China-born Swedish citizen and bookseller Gui Minhai by Chinese authorities,^[260] which led to three Swedish opposition parties calling for the expulsion of China's ambassador to Sweden, Gui Congyou, who had been accused of threatening several Swedish media outlets.^[261][262] Several Swedish cities cut ties with China's cities in February 2020 amid deteriorating relations.^[263] In May 2020, Sweden decided to shut down all Confucius Institutes in the country, citing the Chinese government's meddling in education affairs.^[264] Some Chinese in Sweden have also reported increased stigmatisation during the COVID-19 pandemic.^[265] A 2021 YouGov poll had 77% of Swedish respondents expressing an unfavourable view of China, with no other country more negatively viewed in Sweden except for Iran and Saudi Arabia.^[266]

Ukraine

Main article: China–Ukraine relations

See also:

China during the Russo-Ukrainian War

During the

pro-Russian Chinese government media stance along with reports of chauvinistic comments about Ukrainian women and pro-Russian sentiment by some Chinese netizens led to the fueling of anti-Chinese sentiment in Ukraine. In response, the Embassy of China in Kyiv, which originally encouraged citizens to display Chinese flags on their cars for protection while leaving Ukraine, quickly urged them not to identify themselves or sport any signs of national identity.^[267][268] In a 2023 Razumkov Centre opinion poll 60% of Ukrainians had a negative view of China^[269] - up from 14% in 2019.^[270]

United Kingdom

See also: British Chinese, China–United Kingdom relations, and Opium Wars

15% of ethnic Chinese reported racial harassment in 2016, which was the highest percentage out of all ethnic minorities in the UK.

accounts of racism, and vandalism. There is also a lack of reporting on anti-Chinese discrimination in the UK, notably violence against Chinese Britons.^[272]

The ethnic slur "chink" has been used against the Chinese community;

Wigan Athletic, was fined £50,000 and suspended for six weeks by The Football Association after using the term in an interview; Kerry Smith resigned as an election candidate after it was reported he used similar language.^[272]

Professor Gary Craig from Durham University carried out research about the Chinese population in the UK, and concluded that hate crimes against the Chinese community are getting worse, adding that British Chinese people experience "perhaps even higher levels of racial violence or harassment than those experienced by any other minority group but that the true extent to their victimization is often overlooked because victims were unwilling to report it."[272] Official police victim statistics put Chinese people in a group that includes other ethnicities, making it difficult to understand the extent of the crimes against the Chinese community.^[272]

Americas

See also: The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean

Argentina

See also: Chinese Argentines

Since the 1990s there has been a large wave of immigration of Chinese citizens, mainly from Fujian province. The main business in which the Chinese are dedicated in Argentina is grocery stores and on several occasions they have been accused of unplugging the refrigerators of fresh products during the night to pay cheaper electricity bills. During the social outbreak of 2001, derived from the economic crisis of that year in Argentina, several Chinese-owned supermarkets were attacked.^[273]

Brazil

Chinese investments in Brazil have been largely influenced by this^{[clarification needed]} negative impression.^[274]

Canada

See also: History of Chinese immigration to Canada

In the 1850s, sizable numbers of Chinese immigrants came to

Chinese Canadians were given the right to vote. Restrictions would continue to exist on immigration from Asia until 1967 when all racial restrictions on immigration to Canada were repealed, and Canada adopted the current points-based immigration system. On June 22, 2006, Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered an apology and compensation only for the head tax once paid by Chinese immigrants.^[275] Survivors or their spouses were paid approximately CA$20,000 in compensation.^[276]

Anti-Chinese sentiment in Canada has been fueled by allegations of extreme real estate price distortion resulting from Chinese demand, purportedly forcing locals out of the market.[277]

Mexico

See also: Chinese immigration to Mexico

Anti-Chinese sentiment was first recorded in Mexico in 1880s. Similar to most Western countries at the time, Chinese immigration and its large business involvement have always been a fear for native Mexicans. Violence against Chinese occurred such as in Sonora, Baja California and Coahuila, the most notable was the Torreón massacre,^[278] although it was sometimes argued to be different from other Western nations.^[279]

Peru

See also: Chinese Peruvians and China–Peru relations

Peru was a popular destination for Chinese slaves in the 19th century, as part of the wider blackbirding phenomenon, due to the need in Peru for a military and laborer workforce. However, relations between Chinese workers and Peruvian owners have been tense, due to the mistreatment of Chinese laborers and anti-Chinese discrimination in Peru.^[23]

Due to the Chinese support for Chile throughout the

indigenous peasants sacked and occupied haciendas of landed elite criollo "collaborationists" in the central Sierra – the majority of them were of ethnic Chinese, while indigenous and mestizo Peruvians murdered Chinese shopkeepers in Lima; in response to Chinese coolies revolted and even joined the Chilean Army.^[280][281] Even in the 20th century, the memory of Chinese support for Chile was so deep that Manuel A. Odría, once dictator of Peru, issued a ban against Chinese immigration as a punishment for their betrayal.^[282]

United States

See also: Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States, China–United States relations, History of Chinese Americans, Fresh off the boat, Citizens Against Government Waste § "Chinese Professor" ad, and Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States

famine

, 1878

anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire despite the Chinese Exclusion Act

Starting with the

Elsie Sigel in New York, for which a Chinese person was suspected, was blamed on the Chinese in general and it immediately led to physical violence against them. "The murder of Elsie Sigel immediately grabbed the front pages of newspapers, which portrayed Chinese men as dangerous to "innocent" and "virtuous" young white women. This murder led to a surge in the harassment of Chinese in communities across the United States."^[285]

The emerging American

trade unions, under such leaders as Samuel Gompers, also took an outspoken anti-Chinese position,^[286] regarding Chinese laborers as competitors to white laborers. Only with the emergence of the international trade union, IWW, did trade unionists start to accept Chinese workers as part of the American working class.^[287]

In the 1870s and 1880s, various legal discriminatory measures were taken against the Chinese. These laws, in particular, the

Supreme Court Justice John Marshall Harlan wrote of the Chinese as: "a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States. Persons belonging to it are, with few exceptions, absolutely excluded from our country. I allude to the Chinese race."^[288]

In April 2008, CNN's Jack Cafferty remarked: "We continue to import their junk with the lead paint on them and the poisoned pet food [...] So I think our relationship with China has certainly changed. I think they're basically the same bunch of goons and thugs they've been for the last 50 years." At least 1,500 Chinese Americans protested outside CNN's Hollywood offices in response while a similar protest took place at CNN headquarters in Atlanta.^[289][290]

In the

NAFTA, which the ad had claimed caused jobs to be outsourced to China.^[293]

In October 2013, a child actor on Jimmy Kimmel Live! jokingly suggested in a skit that the U.S. could solve its debt problems by "kill[ing] everyone in China."^[294][295]

Donald Trump, the 45th President of the United States, was accused of promoting sinophobia throughout his campaign for the Presidency in 2016.^[296][297] and it was followed by his imposition of trade tariffs on Chinese goods, which was seen as a declaration of a trade war and another anti-Chinese act.^[298] The deterioration of relations has led to a spike in anti-Chinese sentiment in the US.^[299][300]

According to a Pew Research Center poll which was conducted in April 2022, 82% of Americans have unfavorable opinions of China, including 40% who have very unfavorable views of the country.^[301] In recent years, however, Americans increasingly see China as a competitor, not as an enemy.^[301] 62% view China as a competitor and 25% an enemy, with 10% seeing China as a partner.^[301] In January 2022, only 54% chose competitor and 35% said enemy, almost the same distribution as the prior year.^[301]

It has been noted that there is a negative bias in American reporting on China.^{[302][290][303]} Many Americans, including American-born Chinese, have continuously held prejudices toward mainland Chinese people^{[304][305][306]} which include perceived rudeness and unwillingness to stand in line,^[307][308] even though there are sources that have reported contrary to those stereotypes.^{[309][310][311][312][313][314]} However, the results of a survey which was conducted in 2019 have revealed that some Americans still hold positive views of Chinese visitors to the US.^[315]

A Pew Research poll which was conducted in the US in March 2021 revealed that 55% of respondents supported the imposition of limits on the number of Chinese students who are allowed to study in the country.^[316]

In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of laws which explicitly discriminate against Chinese people in the United States. For example, in 2023, Florida introduced a law which bans Chinese nationals from owning property in the state, a law that has been compared to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.^[317]

Africa

Anti-Chinese populism has been an emerging presence in some African countries.^[318] There have been reported incidents of Chinese workers and business-owners being attacked by locals in some parts of the continent.^[319][320] Following reports of evictions, discrimination and other mistreatment of Africans in Guangzhou during the COVID-19 pandemic,^[321] a group of diplomats from different African countries wrote a letter to express their displeasure over the treatment of their citizens.^[322]

Kenya

In areas where Chinese contractors are building infrastructure, there has been an increase in Anti-Chinese sentiment among Kenyan youths. Kenyan youths have attacked Chinese contract workers, and accused them of denying local workers of job opportunities.^[323]

However, researchers from

Hong Kong University of Science & Technology and Hong Kong Polytechnic University found that across 400 Chinese enterprises and projects in 40-plus African countries, more than 4 out of 5 employees were locals.^[319]

Ghana

A sixteen-year-old illegal Chinese miner was shot in 2012 while trying to escape arrest, an event that led Chinese miners to subsequently begin arming themselves with rifles.[324]

Zambia

In 2006, Chinese businesses were targeted in riots by angry crowds after the electoral defeat of the anti-China

Ambedkar University Delhi, "the popular opposition to China in Zambia is linked to a surge in economic nationalism and new challenges to the neoliberal orthodoxy."^[325] Zambia's ruling government accused the opposition of fueling xenophobic attacks against Chinese nationals.^[326] A 2016 study from the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology suggested though that locals held more nuanced views of Chinese people, ranking them not as highly as Caucasians, but also less negatively than Lebanese, and to some extent, Indian people.^[327]

South Africa

In 2016, the South African government planned to offer Mandarin as an additional optional language along with German, Serbian, Italian, Latin, Portuguese, Spanish, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.[328] However, the teachers union in South Africa accused the government of surrendering to Chinese imperialism.^[328] As of 2017, there were 53 schools that offered Mandarin in the country.^[329]

The Chinese have been victims of robberies and hijackings, and as the South African economy worsens, the hostility towards the Chinese and other foreigners has increased.^[330]

Depiction of China and Chinese in media

Depictions of China and Chinese in

Anglophone media have been a somewhat underreported subject in general, but most are mainly negative coverage.^[290] In 2016, Hong Kong's L. K. Cheah said to South China Morning Post that Western journalists who regard China's motives with suspicion and cynicism cherry-pick facts based on a biased view, and the misinformation that they produce as a result is unhelpful and sympathetic of the resentment against China.^[331]

According to

Hollywood is accused of negative portrayals of Chinese in movies, such as bandits, thugs, criminals, gangsters, dangerous, cold-blooded, weak, and cruel;^[332] while American, as well as European, or Asian characters in general, are depicted as saviors. Even anti-Chinese whitewashing in film is common. Matt Damon, the American actor who appeared in The Great Wall, has also faced criticism that he had participated in "whitewashing" through his involvement in the historical epic and Hollywood-Chinese co-produced movie, which he denied.^[333]

In practice, anti-Chinese political rhetoric usually puts emphasis on highlighting policies and alleged practices of the Chinese government that are criticised internally –

Special Administrative Regions of China, Hong Kong, and Macau.^[334] In defence of this rhetoric, some sources critical of the Chinese government claim that it is Chinese state-owned media and administration who attempt to discredit the "neutral" criticism by generalizing it into indiscriminate accusations of the whole Chinese population, and targeting those who criticize the regime^[335] - or sinophobia.^{[334][336][337][338]} Some have argued, however, that the Western media, similar to Russia's depictions, does not make enough distinction between CPC's regime and China and the Chinese, thus effectively vilifying the whole nation.^[339]

Historical acts of Sinophobic violence

List of non-Chinese "sinophobia-led" acts of violence against ethnic Chinese:

Australia

• Lambing Flat riots
• Buckland Riot

Canada

• Vancouver anti-Chinese riots, 1886

Mexico

• Torreón massacre

Mongolia

• Mongol conquest of China
• Deportation of Chinese people to China in the 1960's
• Attacks against Chinese by the Tsagaan Khas

Indonesia

• 1740 Batavia massacre
• 1918 Kudus riot
• Mergosono massacre
• Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66
• 1967 Mangkuk Merah Tragedy [id]
• 1980 Jawa Tengah Racial Riot [id]
• Situbondo Riot [id]
• Banjarmasin riot of May 1997
• May 1998 riots of Indonesia
• November 2016 Jakarta protests

Malaysia

• 13 May incident

Japan

• Nanjing Massacre
• Sook Ching massacre
• Unit 731

By Koreans

• Wanpaoshan Incident, on July 1, 1931

United States

• Chinese massacre of 1871
• Rock Springs massacre
• Issaquah riot of 1885
• Tacoma riot of 1885
• Seattle riot of 1886
• Hells Canyon Massacre
• Anti-Chinese violence in California
• Denver Riot of 1880
• Killing of Vincent Chin

Vietnam

• 1782 Saigon massacre^[340]
• 2014 Vietnam anti-China protest

Derogatory terms

There are a variety of derogatory terms for China and Chinese people. Many of these terms are viewed as racist. However, these terms do not necessarily refer to the Chinese ethnicity as a whole; they can also refer to specific policies, or specific time periods in history.

In English

• Eh Tiong (阿中) – refers specifically to Chinese nationals. Primarily used in Singapore to differentiate between the Singaporeans of Chinese heritage and Chinese nationals. From Hokkien 中, an abbreviation of 中國 ("China"). Considered offensive.
• Cheena – same usage as 'Eh Tiong' in Singapore. Compare Shina (支纳).
• Chinaman
  – the term Chinaman is noted as offensive by modern dictionaries, dictionaries of slurs and euphemisms, and guidelines for racial harassment.
• Ching chong – Used to mock people of Chinese descent and the Chinese language, or other East and Southeast Asian-looking people in general.
• Ching chang chong – same usage as 'ching chong'.
• Chink – a racial slur referring to a person of Chinese ethnicity, but could be directed towards anyone of East and Southeast Asian descent in general.
• Chinky
  – the name "Chinky" is the adjectival form of Chink and, like Chink, is an ethnic slur for Chinese occasionally directed towards other East and Southeast Asian people.
• Chonky – refers to a person of Chinese heritage with white attributes whether being a personality aspect or physical aspect.^[341][342]
• Coolie – means laborer in reference to Chinese manual workers in the 19th and early 20th century.
• Slope – used to mock people of Chinese descent and the sloping shape of their skull, or other East Asians. Used commonly during the Vietnam War.
• Communist Chinese
  .
• Panface – used to mock the flat facial features of the Chinese and other people of East and Southeast Asian descent.
• Lingling – used to call someone of Chinese descent in the West.
• Hong Kong protests against the Chinese government.^[345][346]
• Made in China – used to mock low-quality products, which can extend to other pejoratively perceived aspects of the country.[115]

In Filipino

• Intsik (sometimes spelled inchek,
  Hokkien term referring to one's uncle. The term has variations, which may be more offensive in tone such as Intsik baho and may used in a derogatory phrase, Intsik baho tulo-laway ("Smelly old Chinaman with drooling saliva").^[347][348]
• Tsekwa (sometimes spelled chekwa) – is a slang term used by the
  Filipinos to refer to Chinese people.^[349]

In French

• Chinetoque (m/f) – derogatory term referring to Asian people, especially of those from China and Vietnam.

In Indonesian

• Chitato – (China Tanpa Toko) – literally "Chinese people don't have shops" referring to ridicule for Indonesian Chinese descent who do not own shops.
• Aseng – A play on the word "asing" which means "foreigner" is used by local natives in Indonesia for Chinese descent.
• Cina PKI Kafir Komunis Laknatullah – (Chinese Communists Kafir Cursed by God) Refers to non-Muslim Chinese people who are often called communist supporters of the PRC. This term has been used as a joke since the incident of blasphemy against Islam by the governor of Jakarta, who is of Chinese descent.
• Panlok (Panda lokal/local panda) – derogatory term referring to Chinese female or female who look like Chinese, particularly
  prostitutes.^[350]

In Japanese

• Dojin (土人, dojin) – literally "earth people", referring either neutrally to local folk or derogatorily to indigenous peoples and savages, used towards the end of the 19th century and early 20th century by Japanese colonists, to imply the backwardsness of Chinese people.[351]
• Tokuajin (特亜人, tokuajin) – literally "particular Asian people", term used for people from East Asian countries that have anti-Japanese sentiments. Taken from Tokutei Asia (特定アジア) which is a term used for countries that are considered anti-Japanese and have political tensions and disputes with Japan, namely North Korea, South Korea, and China.
• Shina (支那 or シナ, shina) – Japanese reading of the Chinese character compound "支那" (Zhina in Mandarin Chinese), originally a Chinese transcription of an Indic name for China that entered East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. This toponym quickly became a racial marker with the rise of Japanese imperialism,^[352] and it is still considered derogatory, as is 'shina-jin'.^[353][354] The slur is also extended toward left-wing activists by right-wing people.^[355]
• Chinaman", with a meaning of "Qing dynasty
  's slave".

In Korean

• Jjangkkae ^[ko] (Korean: 짱깨) – the Korean pronunciation of 掌櫃 (zhǎngguì), literally "shopkeeper", originally referring to owners of Chinese restaurants and stores;^[356] derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
• Jjangkkolla ^[ko] (Korean: 짱꼴라) – this term has originated from Japanese term chankoro (淸國奴, lit. "slave of Qing Manchurian"). Later, it became a derogatory term that indicates people in China.^[357]
• Jung-gong (Korean: 중공; Hanja: 中共) – literally "Chinese communist", it is generally used to refer to Chinese communists, since the Korean War (1950–1953).
• Orangkae (Korean: 오랑캐) – literally "Barbarian", derogatory term used against Chinese, Mongolian and Manchus.
• Doenom [ko] (Korean: 되놈) – Originally a demeaning word for Jurchen, meaning something similar to 'barbarian'. The Jurchens invaded Joseon in 1636 and caused long-term hatred. A Jurchen group later made the Qing dynasty, causing some Koreans to generalize the word to China as a whole.^[358]
• Ttaenom (Korean: 때놈) – literally "dirt bastard", referring to the perceived "dirtiness" of Chinese people, who some believe do not wash themselves. It was originally Dwoenom but changed over time to Ddaenom.

In Mongolian

• Hujaa (Mongolian: хужаа) – derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
• Jungaa – a derogatory term for Chinese people referring to the Chinese language.

In Portuguese

• Xing líng (星零) - literal translation of the Portuguese expression "zero estrela" ("0 star"), to name a rip-off product, associated with Chinese products.^[359]
• Pastel de flango (Chicken pastry) - it is a derogatory term ridiculing Chinese pronunciation of Portuguese language (
  changing R by L). This derogatory term is sometimes used in Brazil to refer to Chinese people.^[360]

In Russian

• Kitayoza (Russian: китаёза kitayóza) (m/f) – derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
• Uzkoglazy (Russian: узкоглазый uzkoglázy) (m) – generic derogatory term referring to Chinese people (lit. "narrow-eyed").

In Spanish

• Chino cochino – (coe-chee-noe, N.A. "cochini", SPAN "cochino", literally meaning "pig") is an outdated derogatory term meaning dirty Chinese. Cochina is the feminine form of the word.

In Italian

• Muso giallo – "yellow muzzle/yellow face", this term was used in an early 20th century play regarding Italian miners. Although it was not directed toward a Chinese person, but rather from one Italian to another, its existence nevertheless attested to the perceived 'otherness' of Chinese laborers within Italy.^[361] The slur is used as an equivalent of "gook" or "zipperhead" in Italian dubs of English films.^[362]

In Vietnamese

• Tàu – literally "boat". It is used to refer to Chinese people in general, and can be construed as derogatory but very rarely does. This usage is derived from the fact that many Chinese refugees came to Vietnam in boats during the Qing dynasty.^[363]
• Khựa – (meaning dirty) derogatory term for Chinese people and combination of two words above is called Tàu Khựa, which is a common word.^[363]
• Tung Của or Trung Của or Trung Cẩu (lit. Dog Chinese) – a word that imitates the pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese Zhōngguó "中国" (China) in a mocking manner, but rarely used.
• Trung Cộng or Tàu Cộng (Chinese communists or Communist China) – used, by Vietnamese anti-communists, mostly in exile, as a mockery toward China's political system and its imperialist desires.^{[364][365][366]}
• Chệc – (ethnic slur, derogatory) Chink^[367][368]
• Chệch^{[note 3]} – (ethnic slur, derogatory) Chink, seldom used in actual spoken Vietnamese, but occurs in some translations as an equivalent of English Chink.

In Cantonese

• Wong choong (Chinese: 蝗蟲; Jyutping: wong⁴cung⁴) – literally "locust"; derogatory neologism used to refer to mainland visitors to Hong Kong accused of bad behavior.^[63]
• gat zat Chinese: 曱甴; Jyutping: gaat⁶zaat⁶) — literally "cockroach"; derogatory neologism used to refer to Hong Kong protestors accused of bad behavior.

In Min-nan

• Si-a-liok (Written in
  Taiwanese Romanization: Sí-a-lio̍k or Sí-a-la̍k) – literally "damn Chinese", sometimes uses "四二六" (426, "sì-èr-liù") in Mandarin as word play. See also: 阿陸仔 ^[zh
  ].

Chinese response

See also: Anti-Western sentiment in China and Racism in China

In the aftermath of the

clash of civilizations or a "a global struggle between the materialistic, individualistic, consumerist, cosmopolitan, corrupt, and decadent West which is led by the United States and the idealist, collectivist, morally and spiritually superior Asia which is led by China," where the West is viewed as trying to tear China up so it can use its natural resources to satisfy its own interests and needs.^[369][370]

A 2020 study among Chinese students who were studying abroad in the United States found that after they faced anti-Chinese racism, their support for the Chinese government increased.^[371] A similar phenomenon was also reported for many Chinese students in the UK.^[372]

Sinophobia during the COVID-19 pandemic

Main article: Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic

The

the virus was first detected in Wuhan, has caused prejudice and racism against people of Chinese ancestry; some people stated that Chinese people deserve to contract it.^[374][375] Several citizens across the globe also demanded a ban on Chinese people from their countries.^[376][377] Racist abuse and assaults among Asian groups in the UK and US have also increased.^[378][379] Former U.S. President Donald Trump also repeatedly called the coronavirus 'Chinese virus' and 'Kung Flu',^[380][381] however, he denied the terms had a racist connotation.^[382]

Notes

1. ^ In Sinosphere, "anti-Chinese government" (反中[國], lit. "anti-Chinese [state]), "anti-Communist" (反共 / 反中共) or "anti-People's Republic of China" (反中華人民共和國), which means political opposition to the Chinese government or state, is distinct from "anti-Chinese racism" (反華 / 嫌中), which is an racist hatred of the Chinese people.^[8][9]
2. ^ Macao was a trading outpost of Portugal since the 1600s in an agreement between China and Portugal, as a non-sovereign holding of the Portuguese empire. The "cession" referred to here is that the sovereignty of Macao was ceded for the first time by China to Portugal after the defeat in the Opium Wars.
3. ^ Alternative form of Chệc.

References

1. ^ Sinophobia is "Fear of or contempt for China, its people, or its culture" states The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Online Edition. Retrieved July 12, 2012.
2. ^ Macmillan dictionary. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
3. ^ The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
4. ^ Collons Dictionary. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
5. ^ ^{a b} "Analysis – Indonesia: Why ethnic Chinese are afraid". Retrieved May 9, 2015.
6. ^ ^{a b} Aaron Langmaid. Chinese Aussie rules players suffer abuse, racism, Herald Sun, February 21, 2013
7. ^ ^{a b} Kazin, Michael; Edwards, Rebecca; Rothman, Adam (2010). "Immigration Policy". The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History. Princeton University Press. Compared to its European counterparts, Chinese immigration of the late nineteenth century was minuscule (4 percent of all immigration at its zenith), but it inspired one of the most brutal and successful nativist movements in U.S. history. Official and popular racism made Chinese newcomers especially vulnerable; their lack of numbers, political power, or legal protections gave them none of the weapons that enabled Irish Catholics to counterattack nativists.
8. ^ Chih-yu Shih; Prapin Manomaivibool; Reena Marwah (August 13, 2018). China Studies In South And Southeast Asia: Between Pro-china And Objectivism. World Scientific Publishing Company. p. 36.
9. ^ 紀紅兵; 內幕出版社 (August 25, 2016). 《十九大不准奪權》: 反貪─清除野心家 (in Chinese). 內幕出版社. ... 第三點,作為獨立學者,與您分享下本人"反中不反華"的觀點。
10. ^ ^{a b} William F. Wu, The Yellow Peril: Chinese Americans in American Fiction, 1850–1940, Archon Press, 1982.
11. ^ "Conference Indorses Chinese Exclusion; Editor Poon Chu Says China Will Demand Entrance Some Day – A Please for the Japanese – Committee on Resolutions Commends Roosevelt's Position as Stated in His Message". The New York Times. December 9, 1905. p. 5. Retrieved February 21, 2010.
12. ^ Matthew Kendrick (August 4, 2022). "China's Alliance With Russia Weakens Its Position in Eastern Europe". Morning Consult. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023. Retrieved February 5, 2023.
13. ^ ^{a b c} Chapter 3. Attitudes toward China - Pew Global Attitudes. Posted on July 18, 2013.
14. ^ "Fewer global citizens believe China will have a positive influence on world affairs in coming decade". Ipsos. November 2020. Archived from the original on October 2, 2021. Retrieved September 21, 2021.
15. ^ "YouGov Cambridge Globalism 2019/20" (PDF). YouGov. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 21, 2021.
16. ^ "Western Balkans Regional Poll (pages 49-53)" (PDF). International Republican Institute, Ipsos. March 6, 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 19, 2020.
17. Globsec. p. 49. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on February 4, 2021.
18. ^ Michael Robbins (December 15, 2021). "Fragile Popularity: Arab Attitudes Towards China – Arab Barometer". Arab Barometer.
19. ISBN 9780824847838
    – via www.degruyter.com.
20. ISBN 9781468313239
    .
21. ^ ^{a b} "An Evidentiary Timeline on the History of Sacramento's Chinatown: 1882 – American Sinophobia, The Chinese Exclusion Act and "The Driving Out"". Friends of the Yee Fow Museum, Sacramento, California. Retrieved March 24, 2008.
22. ^
    ISBN 978-1-350-23394-2
    .
23. ^ ^{a b} Justina Hwang. Chinese in Peru in the 19th century - Modern Latin American, Brown University Library.
24. ^ ^{a b} Unspeakable Affections - Paris Review. May 5, 2017.
25. ^ Daniel Renshaw, "Prejudice and paranoia: a comparative study of antisemitism and Sinophobia in turn-of-the-century Britain." Patterns of Prejudice 50.1 (2016): 38-60. online
26. ^ Sah Dong-seok (2016-08-26, at 14:48). THAAD and anti-Chinese sentiment. The Korea Times.
27. ISBN 9781403973627
    .
28. ^ Matthew Forney, "Why China Loves to Hate Japan". Time, December 10, 2005. Why China Bashes Japan. Accessed June 1, 2008
29. ^ 24-Nation Pew Global Attitudes Survey(2008) Archived July 4, 2008, at the Wayback Machine 35p, Pew Research
30. ^ "Joint Civil Society Report on Racial Discrimination in Japan (page 33)" (PDF). Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. August 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 14, 2019.
31. ^ "Issues related to the increase in tourists visiting Japan from abroad (sections titled 'How foreign tourists are portrayed' and 'Acts of hate?')". www.japanpolicyforum.jp. November 2017. Archived from the original on November 15, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
32. ^ South Koreans Now Dislike China More Than They Dislike Japan. Posted on The New York times. Posted by choe sang-hun on August 20, 2021.
33. ^ Understanding Korea's Hatred for China. Posted on Korea expose. Posted by Se-Woong Koo on Jan 31, 2022.
34. University of Leipzig. Archived
    from the original on May 7, 2021.
35. ^ Ines Beneyto Brunet (August 16, 2019). "A Peek into Chinese Views of other Countries". daxueconsulting.com. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
36. ^ "Kim, Jun seek to revoke contracts for Chinese ad". The Straits Times, The Korea Herald. June 23, 2014.
37. ^ "'Stealing our culture': South Koreans upset after China claims kimchi as its own". The Guardian. December 1, 2020. Retrieved July 24, 2022.
38. ^ ESTHER CHUNG (February 10, 2022). "Chinese Embassy shoots down claims that hanbok was attempt to steal culture". Korea JoongAng Daily. Retrieved July 24, 2022.
39. ^ Scott Shepherd (February 12, 2022). "Hanbok stealing?". The Korea Times. Retrieved July 24, 2022.
40. ^ Choi Seong Hyeon (February 26, 2021). "A Korean Poet Is the Latest Example of China's 'Cultural Imperialism'". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on May 11, 2022.
41. ^ East Asia Institute Foreign Perception Survey 2005–2009, some in collaboration with BBC World Service Polls 2005–2008 http://www.eai.or.kr
42. ^ "Views of Europe Slide Sharply in Global Poll, While Views of China Improve". GlobeScan. May 10, 2012. Retrieved January 7, 2023.
43. ^ Beijing's Anti-THAAD Moves Sour China Views in South Korea. Voice of America. Posted by Brian Padden on March 21, 2017.
44. ^ Lee Jeong-ho (October 3, 2018). "China, not North Korea, is biggest threat to peace, South Koreans say". South China Morning Post. Retrieved July 14, 2019.
45. ^ Richard Q. Turcsanyi; Esther E. Song (December 24, 2022). "South Koreans Have the World's Most Negative Views of China. Why?". The Diplomat.
46. ^ Tai, Crystal (January 5, 2018). "The strange, contradictory privilege of living in South Korea as a Chinese-Canadian woman". Quartz. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
47. KoreaBANG. April 25, 2012. Archived
    from the original on January 31, 2021.
48. ^ "Too Different to Be Chinese, Not Good Enough to Be Korean". Korea Exposé. September 20, 2018. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
49. ^ ^{a b} "Hate Speech against Immigrants in Korea: A Text Mining Analysis of Comments on News about Foreign Migrant Workers and Korean Chinese Residents* (page 281)" (PDF). Seoul National University. Ritsumeikan University. January 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 5, 2020.
50. ^ "Ethnic Korean-Chinese fight 'criminal' stigma in Korea". AsiaOne. October 4, 2017. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
51. ^ "'반중 넘어 혐중'‥ 중국인 혐오, 도 넘은 수준까지?". The Financial News (in Korean). June 13, 2019. Archived from the original on June 14, 2019.
52. ^ "'Taiwanese' identity hits record level". Taipei Times. January 26, 2015. Retrieved January 27, 2024.
53. ^ Anderlini, Jamil (March 30, 2014). "Thousands of Taiwanese rally against closer ties with China". Financial Times. Archived from the original on December 11, 2022.
54. ^ Everington, Keoni (October 30, 2023). "76% of Taiwanese consider China 'unfriendly': MAC poll". Taiwan News. Retrieved October 30, 2023.
55. ^ "HKU POP releases latest survey on Hong Kong people's ethnic identity". Hong Kong University. December 22, 2014. Archived from the original on March 22, 2015. Retrieved January 14, 2015.
56. ^ "Almost nobody in Hong Kong under 30 identifies as "Chinese"". The Economist. August 26, 2019.
57. ^ jim.smith (August 27, 2013). "Phone cams and hate speech in Hong Kong". Gates Cambridge. Archived from the original on April 4, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
58. ^ Leung, Wing Yeung Vivian (July 18, 2018). "Discriminatory Media Reports Against Mainland Chinese New Immigrants in Hong Kong". ISA World Congress Of Sociology.
59. ISBN 978-1-78831-982-9
    .
60. ^ "Hongkongers still 'negative' about mainland visitors, HKU poll shows". South China Morning Post. December 4, 2013. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
61. S2CID 150395266
    .
62. ISSN 1868-1026
    .
63. ^ ^{a b} Liu, Juliana (February 8, 2012). "Surge in anti-China sentiment in Hong Kong". BBC. Retrieved October 4, 2013.
64. ^ Buddle, Cliff (February 26, 2014). "Anti-mainlander protest a reminder of the limits of free speech". South China Morning Post. Retrieved February 27, 2014.
65. ^ Jing Wu, Nelson Moura (August 30, 2019). "Corrected: Mainland Chinese uni students in Macau afraid of discrimination in HK". Macau News Agency - DeFicção Multimedia Projects. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
66. ^ Audrey Jiajia Li (October 11, 2019). "The dirty secret of Hong Kong's protests: hatred of mainlanders". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on October 11, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
67. ^ "Will violence kill Hong Kong's pro-democracy movement? (at 22:07 minutes)". DW News. November 2019. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021.
68. ^ "Chinese students flee HK in fear of attack after death". Bangkok Post. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
69. ^ "Kazakhstan's land reform protests explained – BBC News". BBC News. April 28, 2016. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
70. ^ Catherine Putz (2016). "Land Protests Persist in Kazakhstan". The Diplomat. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
71. ^ Gabriele Battaglia, The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor Between Hope and Fear. Asia Times. January 17, 2017.
72. Wilson Center
    .
73. ^ ^{a b} Tania Branigan (August 2, 2010). "Mongolian neo-Nazis: Anti-Chinese sentiment fuels rise of ultra-nationalism". The Guardian.
74. ^ Billé (2015). Sinophobia: Anxiety, Violence, and the Making of Mongolian Identity.
75. ^ Avery, Martha (2003). The Tea Road: China and Russia Meet Across the Steppe. China Intercontinental Press. p. 91.^{[circular reference]}
76. ^ "Eurasianet | Tajikistan: China's Advance Causing Increasing Unease among Tajiks". Eurasianet. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved July 25, 2018.
77. ^ Tajik social-democrats leader: China grabs more Tajik land than agreed. Posted by Ferghana International Agency, on April 16, 2013.
78. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 37. University of Oxford
    .
79. ISBN 978-1-78831-982-9
    .
80. ISBN 978-1-136-11322-2
    .
81. ^ James Fallows (July 13, 2009). "On Uighurs, Han, and general racial attitudes in China". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on December 12, 2010.
82. ^ Wang, Emily (November 22, 2018). "China's model village of ethnic unity shows cracks in facade". Associated Press. Archived from the original on November 21, 2018.
83. ^ 10 killed in ethnic clash in western China. Posted on CNN. Posted on February 10, 1997.
84. ^ China locks down western province after ethnic riots kill 140. Posted on The Guardian.com. Posted on July 6, 2009.
85. ^ Why is there tension between China and the Uighurs?. Posted on BBC News. Posted on September 26, 2014.
86. ^ China Xinjiang police state: Fear and resentment. Posted on BBC News. Posted on February 1, 2018.
87. ^ "China Seizes on a Dark Chapter for Tibet", by Edward Wong, The New York Times, August 9, 2010 (August 10, 2010, p. A6 of NY ed.). Retrieved August 10, 2010.
88. ^ How the Dalai Lama Works - People. Posted on HowStuffWorks
89. ThoughtCo
    . Posted by Kallie Szczepanski on July 16, 2018.
90. ^ Dalai Lama Escapes From Tibet: How and Why It Happened. Posted on Time. Posted on March 17, 2015.
91. ^ Blake Kerr; John Ackerly (January 2, 2018). "HEROD IN TIBET: Massacre of the innocents". Tibetan Review. Delhi, India. Retrieved January 27, 2024.
92. ^ Anna Morcom (June 2018). "The Political Potency of Tibetan Identity in Pop Music and Dunglen (page 129)". Himalaya. 38. Royal Holloway, University of London.
93. ^ "Self-Immolation Protests - Tibetan Resistance". Free Tibet. United Kingdom. Retrieved January 27, 2024.
94. ^ "Immigration, Population, and Foreign Workforce in Singapore: An Overview of Trends, Policies, and Issues (page 2)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 16, 2020. Retrieved March 16, 2020.
95. ^ "Singapore: Asian immigrant stock by country of origin 2019". Statista. Retrieved March 16, 2020.
96. ^ "Part 1 of 2: Chinese Xenophobia in Singapore Rises | GRI". Global Risk Insights. July 28, 2013. Retrieved March 16, 2020.
97. ^ Jacobs, Andrew (July 27, 2012). "In Singapore, Vitriol Against Chinese Newcomers". The New York Times. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
98. ^ Cheung, Helier (May 1, 2014). "'No Indians No PRCs': Singapore's rental discrimination". Retrieved January 1, 2020.
99. ^ "Britons make worst tourists, say Britons (and Spaniards and Germans)". YouGov. August 30, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
100. ^ Gebicki, Michael (September 20, 2019). "Most disliked tourists by country revealed in new research". Stuff.
101. ^ Loo May Eng (July 2016). "Language Choice of Chinese Migrants in Singapore (page 41)" (PDF). National University of Singapore. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 22, 2021 – via CORE.
102. ^ Tran Nhi Bach Van; Duong Thi Hoang Yen; Xiao Juan; Sun Chenhui (2016). "The Integration of International Chinese Students Into Local Singaporean Community (pages 81-83)" (PDF). Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management. 4. James Cook University Singapore. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 21, 2021.
103. ISBN 978-0520236424
     .
104. ^ "Penang's forgotten protest: The 1967 Hartal". Penang Monthly. August 25, 2014. Archived from the original on November 30, 2016. Retrieved April 25, 2016.
105. ISBN 978-0520236424
     .
106. ^ Hwang, p. 72.
107. ^ von Vorys 1975, p. 364.
108. ^ "RACE WAR IN MALAYSIA". TIME. May 18, 2007. Archived from the original on May 18, 2007.
109. ^ von Vorys 1975, p. 368.
110. ^ Slimming 1969, pp. 47–48.
111. ^ Treena Becker (August 16, 2016). "Racism drove me from Malaysia. Love brought me to America". The Guardian. Archived from the original on August 16, 2016.
112. ^ "A Revision of Malaysia's Racial Compact". Harvard Political Review. August 18, 2021. Archived from the original on August 18, 2021.
113. ^ Menon, Praveen (March 9, 2018). "Attack on Chinese billionaire exposes growing racial divide in Malaysia". Reuters.
114. ^ Amy Chew (September 10, 2019). "In Malaysia, fake news of Chinese nationals getting citizenship stokes racial tensions". South China Morning Post. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
115. ^ ^{a b} Kok Xinghui (January 29, 2020). "Coronavirus spreads anti-Chinese racism through Asia like a disease". South China Morning Post. Retrieved March 16, 2020.
116. ^ Ellis-Petersen, Hannah (July 31, 2018). "'No Cambodia left': how Chinese money is changing Sihanoukville". The Guardian. Archived from the original on July 31, 2018. Retrieved June 3, 2020.
117. ^ Tantingco, Robby (March 15, 2010). "Tantingco: What your surname reveals about your past". Sunstar.
118. ISBN 978-9971-69-386-2
     .
119. ^
     S2CID 146678795
     .
120. ^ Tiezzi, Shannon (September 17, 2014). "China Warns Citizens to Stay Away from Philippines". The Diplomat.
121. ^ Alan Robles (February 7, 2020). "Coronavirus concerns fuel anti-Chinese sentiment in the Philippines". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.
122. ^ History: October 9, 1740: Chinezenmoord, The Batavia Massacre. Posted on History Headline. Posted by Major Dan on October 9, 2016.
123. ^ 海外汉人被屠杀的血泪史大全. woku.com (in Simplified Chinese). ^{[permanent dead link]}
124. ^ 十七﹒八世紀海外華人慘案初探 (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taoyuan Department of Education. Archived from the original on January 2, 2017. Retrieved March 17, 2018.
125. ^ "ǻܵļɱ". Retrieved May 9, 2015.
126. ^ 南洋华人被大规模屠杀不完全记录 (in Chinese (China)). The Third Media. Archived from the original on July 7, 2011. Retrieved July 26, 2009.
127. ^ Indonesian academics fight burning of books on 1965 coup Archived January 10, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, smh.com.au
128. ^ Vickers (2005), p. 158
129. ^ "Inside Indonesia – Digest 86 – Towards a mapping of 'at risk' groups in Indonesia". Archived from the original on September 20, 2000. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
130. ^ "[Indonesia-L] Digest – The May Riot". Archived from the original on March 25, 2017. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
131. ^ Beech, Hannah; Suhartono, Muktita; Dean, Adam (March 31, 2020). "China Chases Indonesia's Fishing Fleets, Staking Claim to Sea's Riches". The New York Times.
132. ^ "Fake news charges emotionally driven Jakarta election". Nikkei Asia. February 13, 2017. Archived from the original on June 7, 2018.
133. ^ Amy Chew (July 16, 2020). "Indonesian students continue protests against Chinese workers". South China Morning Post. Retrieved September 4, 2020.
134. ^ Kevin Ng (April 14, 2022). "Online predators are systemically targeting Chinese-Indonesian women for vile sexual abuse". Coconuts Media.
135. ISBN 978-80-8239-010-3. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help
     )
136. ^ Hutt, David (November 7, 2022). "China more popular among SE Asia publics than elites". Asia Times. Retrieved January 7, 2023.
137. ^ Lintner, Bertil (April 5, 2017). "A Chinese war in Myanmar". Asia Times. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
138. ^ Yhome, K. "The BRI and Myanmar's China debate". Observer Research Foundation. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
139. ^ Smith, Matthew (March 4, 2015). "Opinion | How China Fuels Myanmar's Wars". The New York Times. Retrieved March 4, 2015.
140. ^ "Animosity in a Burmese Hub Deepens as Chinese Get Richer". The New York Times. Retrieved November 27, 2016.
141. ISEAS Publishing
     .
142. ^ "In Myanmar, Rebels Make Advances, but Peace Remains a Distant Prospect". Stratfor. December 12, 2023. Archived from the original on December 15, 2023. Retrieved January 27, 2024. In late November, supporters of the governing junta staged protests in Naypyidaw and Yangon, including outside the Chinese embassy, to protest the perception that China was actively aiding the rebels in their offensive.
143. ^ Lt Gen Prakash Katoch (December 4, 2023). "Myanmar Aflame". Indian Defence Review [fr]. Retrieved January 27, 2024. Yangon recently witnessed anti-China protests (allowed by the government) for supporting armed groups in Myanmar.
144. ^ "Myanmar Regime-Backed Rallies Denounce China, Accusing It of Backing Anti-Junta Alliance". The Irrawaddy. November 20, 2023. Archived from the original on November 21, 2023. Retrieved November 23, 2023.
145. ^ Luang Phibunsongkhram. Posted in Encyclopedia Britannica.
146. ^ "Nation-building and the Pursuit of Nationalism under Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram". 2bangkok.com. July 15, 2004. Archived from the original on July 6, 2014. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
147. ISBN 978-1-78064-854-5
     .
148. ^ "Chinese, Russian tourists not 'preferred', says Phuket poll". The Phuket News. August 1, 2015. Retrieved January 2, 2020.
149. ^ Farrell, James Austin. "Thailand's hostility to Chinese tourists traces all the way back to its history of immigration". Business Insider. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
150. Khaosod English. Archived
     from the original on June 19, 2019.
151. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived
     from the original on December 1, 2023. About 60 percent of his customers, he said, had been Chinese visitors, but they're not coming anymore because of the lockdown in China and Beijing's prohibitions on Chinese group tours exiting the country. "Most of the Chinese I drove were nice," he said. "I miss them."
152. ^ "Cross-cultural Differences and Cultural Stereotypes in Tourism - Chinese Tourists in Thailand" (PDF). www.longdom.org.
153. S2CID 154494165
     .
154. ^ "overseas chinese in vietnam". Retrieved May 9, 2015.
155. ^ Griffin, Kevin. Vietnamese Archived February 28, 2003, at the Wayback Machine. Discover Vancouver.
156. ^ Martha Ann Overland (April 16, 2009). "In Vietnam, New Fears of a Chinese 'Invasion'". Time. Archived from the original on April 18, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
157. ^ ^{a b} "Vietnamese in second anti-China rally over disputed islands". The Australian. Agence France-Presse. December 16, 2007. Archived from the original on December 18, 2007. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
158. ^ Ask The Vietnamese About War, And They Think China, Not The U.S. Posted Michael Sullivan on May 1, 2015.
159. ^ Agence France Presse (April 20, 2009). "Vietnam's China mining plans spark rare criticism". AsianOne News. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
160. ^ "Vietnam's nationalist bloggers: Getting if off your chest". The Economist. September 10, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
161. ^ Martha Ann Overland (September 5, 2009). "Vietnam to Its Journalists: Don't Tread on China". Time. Archived from the original on September 8, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
162. ^ Pham, Nga (August 12, 2009). "China releases Vietnam fishermen". BBC News. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
163. ^ "Tourist Agencies Abandon China". Radio Free Asia. June 3, 2011.
164. ^ "Vietnamese hold anti-Chinese protest". BBC. June 5, 2011. Retrieved June 5, 2011.
165. ^ "Vietnam protesters clash with police over new economic zones". BBC News. June 10, 2018. Retrieved June 10, 2018.
166. ^ Gross, Daniel. Cheap Trade. Newsweek.
167. ISBN 978-1-78064-021-1
     .
168. Tuoi Tre News
     . November 23, 2019. Retrieved July 24, 2022.
169. ^ "Chinese newspaper report on Vietnam's ao dai sparks outrage". VietNamNet. November 24, 2019. Retrieved July 24, 2022.
170. ^ Sinophilia and Sinophobia in Afghanistan. Posted on The Diplomat. Posted by Tamin Asey on December 10, 2014.
171. ^ "VOICE OF THE PEOPLE Annual Global End of Year Surveys (page 124)" (PDF). Gallup International Association. December 2020.
172. ISBN 9783030861445
     .
173. ^ "Netizens in India, Nepal troll Beijing after 'fake' claims on Mt Everest". The Times of India, Asian News International. May 10, 2020.
174. ^ Francis, Xavier (May 10, 2020). "After Claiming Mount Everest, China Now Says Mount Qomolangma is located on Nepal-China Border". EurAsian Times.
175. ISBN 9780295801209
     . Retrieved February 28, 2018.
176. ^ Brian Benedictus (August 2, 2014). "Bhutan and the Great Power Tussle". The Diplomat. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
177. ISBN 978-93-91370-77-0
     .
178. ^ "India's Real Problem Lies in its Bhutan Policy, Not the Border". The Wire. Retrieved July 12, 2022.
179. ^ "Sri Lanka protest over Chinese investment turns ugly". BBC. January 7, 2017.
180. ^ ^{a b} "Protest over Hambantota port deal turns violent". Al Jazeera. January 7, 2017.
181. ^ Sen, Tansen (April 13, 2005). "Go for a slight change of route". Telegraph. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved September 26, 2006.
182. ^
     OPEN
     . Retrieved November 17, 2013.
183. ^ Schiavenza, Matt (August 9, 2013). "India's Forgotten Chinese Internment Camp". The Atlantic. Retrieved November 17, 2013.
184. ^ "Indo Tibetan meet proposes boycott of Chinese goods". The Times of India. September 23, 2013. Retrieved October 20, 2014.
185. ^ "Boycott Chinese products, says prominent cleric in Eid sermon". Zee News. October 6, 2014. Archived from the original on October 7, 2014. Retrieved October 20, 2014.
186. ^ "India says China's Galwan Valley claims 'untenable, exaggerated'". aljazeera.
187. ^ "Google Removes Viral Indian App That Deleted Chinese Ones: 10 Points". NDTV. June 3, 2020. Archived from the original on June 3, 2020.
188. .doc
     ) on April 14, 2008. Retrieved March 24, 2008.
189. ^ ^{a b} Markey, Raymond (January 1, 1996). "Race and organized labor in Australia, 1850–1901". The Historian. Archived from the original on October 19, 2017. Retrieved June 14, 2006.
190. ^ ^{a b} Griffiths, Phil (July 4, 2002). "Towards White Australia: The shadow of Mill and the spectre of slavery in the 1880s debates on Chinese immigration" (RTF). 11th Biennial National Conference of the Australian Historical Association. Retrieved June 14, 2006.
191. ISBN 0642106339
     .
192. ^ "China Outrage Over Sydney Train Assault". The Sydney Morning Herald. April 26, 2012. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
193. ^ Lord, Kathy (July 25, 2017). "Offensive flyers targeting Chinese students found at Melbourne universities". ABC News.
194. ^ Riordan, Primrose (August 2, 2017). "Chinese social media outraged by racist graffiti at Sydney University".
195. ^ Kwai, Isabella; Xu, Vicky Xiuzhong (July 25, 2017). "Anti-Chinese Posters at Melbourne Universities Are Tied to White Supremacists". The New York Times.
196. ^ ^{a b c} K. Emma Ng (11 ago. 2015). Old Asian, New Asian Archived May 6, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. The Pantograph Punch.
197. ^ Katherine Dolan (September 16, 2016). New Zealand is no paradise: Rugby, racism and homophobia. Stuff.
198. ^ ^{a b} "PNG riots hit Chinese businesses". BBC. May 18, 2009. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
199. ISSN 0013-0613
     .
200. ^ "No More Chinese!" Archived June 30, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Tongatapu.net
201. ^ "Tonga announces the expulsion of hundreds of Chinese immigrants" Archived March 16, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, John Braddock, WSWS, December 18, 2001
202. ^ ^{a b} "The Pacific Proxy: China vs Taiwan" Archived November 4, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Graeme Dobell, ABC Radio Australia, February 7, 2007
203. ^ "Chinese stores looted in Tonga riots", People's Daily, November 17, 2006
204. ^ Kuo, Mercy A. "Israeli Perceptions of China: Implications for the United States". The Diplomat. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
205. ^ Pompilio, Natalie (July 15, 2019). "How Shanghai Saved 20,000 Jews from the Nazis". Thedailybeast.com. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
206. ^ "China's Kaifeng Jews date back 1,400 years and have an unlikely ambassador – a teenager from Hong Kong". South China Morning Post. March 8, 2020. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
207. ^ Ross, Paul (November 20, 2015). "Mao's Jews". Jewish Journal. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
208. ^ Shnidman, Ronen. "How a Jewish doctor helped form backbone of revolutionary China's medical system". The Times of Israel. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
209. ^ ^{a b} "Chinese authorities crack down on tiny Jewish community". The Times of Israel. September 25, 2016. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
210. ^ Gilbert, Lela (February 15, 2019). "Tiny Kaifeng Jewish community faces Orwellian future". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
211. Hurriyet Daily News
     . Doğan News Agency. July 4, 2015.
212. ^ "Turks protesting against China attack Koreans 'by mistake'". Malay Mail. Agence France-Presse. July 5, 2014.
213. ^ "China says tourists attacked in Turkey during anti-China protests". Reuters. July 5, 2015. Archived from the original on November 13, 2015. Retrieved July 2, 2017.
214. ^ Lefevre, Amy Sawitta; Dikmen, Yesim (July 9, 2015). "Thai PM defends decision to send Uighurs back to China". Reuters. Archived from the original on November 26, 2015. Retrieved July 2, 2017.
215. ^ Pinar Tremblay (July 20, 2015). "Attacks on Chinese escalate in Turkey". Al-Monitor. Archived from the original on May 12, 2021.
216. ^ Giorgio Cafiero; Bertrand Viala (March 15, 2017). "China-Turkey Relations Grow Despite Differences over Uighurs". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on November 25, 2018.
217. ^ "Turks embrace Russia, China, reject U.S. - U.S. State Dept poll". Ahval. Archived from the original on January 16, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
218. ^ China Will not 'Protect Any Party' in Syria Violence. International Business Times. Posted by Daniel Tovrov on 02/14/12.
219. ^ Mackinnon, Colum Lynch, Amy (September 4, 2020). "Document of the Week: Czech Pol to China: Piss Off".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
220. ^ "'Heavy price': China threatens Czech official over Taiwan visit". www.aljazeera.com.
221. ^ "China influence aggravates Czech Republic's political war". Nikkei Asia.
222. ^ ^{a b c} Ponniah, Kevin (October 26, 2016). "A killing in Paris: Why French Chinese are in uproar". BBC.
223. ^ "A killing in Paris: Why French Chinese are in uproar". BBC News. October 25, 2016.
224. ^ Mulholland, Rory (February 22, 2018). "Emmanuel Macron promises to stop foreign investors buying up French farms after China land grab". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.
225. ^ ^{a b} "La Chine vue par les Français : menace ou opportunité ?". Institut Montaigne (in French). Retrieved January 1, 2020.
226. ^ [email protected], Nik Fes. "Chinese Tourists – Parisians Not Only Happy about the Tourism Boom | .TR". www.tourism-review.com. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
227. ^ "Survey Finds Americans Are Most Annoying Airline Passengers". TravelPulse. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
228. ^ "Stats: Speaking Louder, Slower Picked as Most Ignorant Tourist Habit". Travel Agent Central. September 18, 2018. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
229. ^ "Chinese Tourists' Behavior Improving, Study by Chinese Tourism Authority Finds". Jing Daily. February 23, 2017. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
230. ^ Germany Defends Itself Against Chinese M&A Onslaught. Posted on TheStreet. Posted by Alex Frew Mcmillan on November 5, 2016.
231. ^ "Globale Umfrage: Deutsche Touristen im Ausland eher unbeliebt". Die Welt. September 3, 2019.
232. ^ Seipp, Bettina (June 6, 2014). "Umfrage : Warum Russen die unbeliebtesten Touristen sind". Die Welt.
233. Agence France Presse. June 6, 2014. Archived
     from the original on May 10, 2017.
234. ^ How did the Boxer Rebellion unite Imperial Powers and create Chinese Nationalism?. Posted on Daily History.
235. ISBN 9781443873062
     .
236. ^ ^{a b} Ancient Italian Town Turns Against Chinese Migrants. Posted on VOA News. Posted by Henry Ridgwell on October 22, 2010.
237. ^ Ricardo Padron (2014).Sinophobia vs. Sinofilia in the 16th Century Iberian World. Instituto Cultural do Governo da R.A.E de Macau.
238. ISBN 978-0-226-09229-4
     . Retrieved July 18, 2011. envoy, had most effectively poured out his tale of woe, of deprivation at the hands of the Portuguese in Malacca; and he had backed up the tale with others concerning the reprehensible Portuguese methods in the Moluccas, making the case (quite truthfully) that European trading visits were no more than the prelude to annexation of territory. With the tiny sea power at this time available to the Chinese
239. ^ Duarte Drumond Braga (2017). de portugal a macau: Filosofia E Literatura No Diálogo Das Culturas. Universidade do Porto, Faculdade de Letras.
240. ^ Peyrouse, Sebastien. "Understanding Sinophobia in Central Asia". The Diplomat. Retrieved May 4, 2020.
241. ^ Santoli, Al (January 29, 2001). "Russian far east residents fear takeover by China; Sino-Russian "strategic cooperation" pact aimed at US". American Foreign Policy Council. Archived from the original on November 16, 2007. Retrieved March 25, 2008.
242. ^ Baker, Peter (August 2, 2003). "Russians fear Chinese 'takeover' of Far East regions". Dawn. Archived from the original on November 16, 2007. Retrieved March 25, 2008.
243. S2CID 201356636
     .
244. JSTOR 41639036
     .
245. ^ "Mapping Ethnic Stereotypes and Their Antecedents in Russia (chart)". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
246. PMID 31379677
     .
247. ^ ^{a b} "Poll: The EU Has Solid Common Ground When It Comes To China". The Diplomat. November 16, 2020. Archived from the original on November 16, 2020.
248. ^ "Russian public opinion on China in the age of COVID-19 (pages 6 and 8)" (PDF). Central European Institute of Asian Studies. 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 16, 2021.
249. ^ The story of Li-ma-hong and his failed attempt to conquer Manila in 1574. Posted on Wednesday October 24, 2012.
250. ^ Samuel Hawley. The Spanish Plan to Conquer China.
251. ^ "Spanish public opinion on China in the age of COVID-19 (pages 4 and 9)" (PDF). Central European Institute of Asian Studies, Elcano Royal Institute. October 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 29, 2020.
252. ^ Walsh, Michael (September 18, 2018). "China says Swedish police 'brutally abused' tourists ejected from a hostel". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
253. ^ Walsh, Michael; Xiao, Bang (September 29, 2018). "'Vicious attack': Comedy skit deepens China and Sweden's diplomatic spat". ABC News. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
254. ^ "Touristes expulsés et blagues racistes : tensions entre la Suede et la Chine". Le Monde (via Youtube).
255. ^ "A Swedish TV Show Said Chinese Tourists Poop In Public And People Are Pissed". BuzzFeed News. September 25, 2018. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
256. ^ "Aili Tang - Örebro University School of Business". www.oru.se. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
257. ^ "Sveriges Television sprider rasism om kineser". DN.SE (in Swedish). September 26, 2018. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
258. ^ Tomas Haupt. "Sweden Avoided by Chinese Tourists". www.tourism-review.com.
259. ^ "Scanian of the Year: Jesper Rönndahl gets his portrait at Malmö Airport". www.swedavia.com. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
260. ^ Editorial Board. "Opinion - China kidnapped Gui Minhai. Now it wants to lock him away". Washington Post.
261. ^ Flittner, Sofia (May 11, 2020). "Hostility between China and Sweden at an all-time high". ScandAsia.
262. ISSN 0013-0613
     . Retrieved September 7, 2020.
263. ^ Milne, Richard (February 2020). "Swedish cities cut China links after increase in tension". Financial Times. Archived from the original on December 11, 2022.
264. ^ "Sweden shutters all China-sponsored Confucius Institutes". Taiwan News. April 23, 2020.
265. ^ Russell, Dave (February 10, 2020). "Chinese in Sweden report increased stigmatisation since coronavirus outbreak". Sveriges Radio – via sverigesradio.se.
266. ^ "YouGov / Eurotrack Survey Results" (PDF). YouGov. May 25, 2021.
267. ^ Yang, William (March 8, 2022). "Ukraine: Sexist comments on Chinese social media trigger backlash". DW News. Retrieved September 19, 2022. Another Chinese student said some Chinese nationals in Ukraine had been confronted by Ukrainian people. The Chinese Embassy in Ukraine, which originally encouraged citizens to display Chinese flags on their cars for protection, quickly urged them not to identify themselves or sport any signs of national identity.
268. YouTube
269. ^ Yakimenko, Yuriy (April 5, 2023). "Зовнішня політика України в умовах війни: стан, особливості та пріоритети [Ukrainian foreign policy in wartime: current state, nuances and priorities]". Ukrinform. Retrieved April 5, 2023. Негативне ставлення найчастіше висловлюється до росії – 94%, білорусі – 81%, Ірану – 73,5%, Китаю – 60%, Угорщини – 46,5%.
270. ^ "Attitudes toward China". Pew Research Center. December 5, 2019. Retrieved April 7, 2023.
271. ^ Chinese report highest levels of racial harassment in UK. Posted by The Guardian.com Posted on November 18, 2017.
272. ^ ^{a b c d} Thomas, Emily (January 6, 2015). "British Chinese people say racism against them is 'ignored'". BBC News.
273. ^ "Ataque xenófobo a los comercios chinos". eldiaonline (in Spanish). December 13, 2013.
274. S2CID 158910046
     .
275. ^ Canada (2006). "Address by the Prime Minister on the Chinese Head Tax Redress". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on May 2, 2012. Retrieved August 8, 2006.
276. ^ PM apologizes in House of Commons for head tax Archived February 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
277. ^ Anti-Chinese sentiment partly governments' fault: Steves. Posted on Richmond News. Posted by Graeme Wood on November 23, 2016, at 12:52 PM.
278. ^ An anti-Chinese mob in Mexico. New York Times.
279. ^ Chino: Anti-Chinese Racism in Mexico. Department of History. Prof. Jason Oliver Chang (Asian American Studies & History, University Of Connecticut). Posted on Monday, March 20, 2017.
280. ^ Taylor, Lewis. Indigenous Peasant Rebellions in Peru during the 1880s
281. ^ Bonilla, Heraclio. 1978. The National and Colonial Problem in Peru. Past and Present
282. ISBN 9780816531110
     . Retrieved April 22, 2020 – via Google Books.
283. ^ Norton, Henry K. (1924). The Story of California From the Earliest Days to the Present. Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co. pp. 283–296. Archived from the original on May 9, 2008. Retrieved October 2, 2011.
284. ^ See, e.g., "Our Misery and Despair": Kearney Blasts Chinese Immigration. Posted on History Matters: The U.S. Survey course on the web. Posted by Dennis Kearney, President, and H.L Knight, Secretary.
285. ^ Ling, Huping (2004). Chinese St. Louis: From Enclave to Cultural Community. Temple University Press. p. 68. The murder of Elsie Sigel immediately grabbed the front pages of newspapers, which portrayed Chinese men as dangerous to "innocent" and "virtuous" young white women. This murder led to a surge in the harassment of Chinese in communities across the United States.
286. ^ Gompers, Samuel; Gustadt, Herman (1902). Meat vs. Rice: American Manhood against Asiatic Coolieism: Which Shall Survive?. American Federation of Labor.
287. ^ Lai, Him Mark; Hsu, Madeline Y. (2010). Chinese American Transnational Politics. University of Illinois Press. pp. 53–54.
288. ^ Chin, Gabriel J. "Harlan, Chinese and Chinese Americans". University of Dayton Law School.
289. ^ Pierson, David (April 20, 2008). "Protesters gather at CNN". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on November 9, 2021.
290. ^ ^{a b c} Chris Berdik (April 25, 2008). "Is the World Against China? | BU Today". Boston University. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
291. ^ Chi, Frank (November 8, 2010). "In campaign ads, China is fair game; Chinese-Americans are not". The Boston Globe.
292. ^ ^{a b} Lyden, Jacki (October 27, 2010). "Critics Say Political Ads Hint Of Xenophobia". NPR. Retrieved December 5, 2010.
293. ^ Yang, Jeff (October 27, 2010). "Politicians Play The China Card". Tell Me More. NPR. Retrieved December 5, 2010.
294. ^ "Did protesters overreact to Jimmy Kimmel's jokes about Chinese people?". The Denver Post. November 7, 2013. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
295. ^ "'Kill everyone in China': Outrage over comment during Jimmy Kimmel skit". South China Morning Post. October 23, 2013.
296. ^ Summers, Ann (July 3, 2016). "all Trump has left is Islamophobia and Sinophobia in the swing-states". Flowers For Socrates.
297. ^ Anti-China rhetoric in campaign suggests change under a new president. Posted on Washington Post. Posted on September 23, 2015.
298. ^ It isn't only Trump who loves a trade war. Posted on Spiked. Posted on March 6, 2018.
299. ISSN 0362-4331
     . Retrieved August 14, 2019.
300. ^ "Caught in the middle: Chinese-Americans feel heat as tensions flare". South China Morning Post. September 25, 2018. Retrieved August 14, 2019.
301. ^ ^{a b c d} Huang, Christine; Silver, Laura; Clancy, Laura (April 22, 2022). "China's Partnership With Russia Seen as Serious Problem for the U.S." Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project. Retrieved May 9, 2022.
302. ^ "Search Results for chinese | FAIR - Page 2". Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
303. ^ Stephen Harner (November 3, 2014). "Dealing with the Scourge of "Schadenfreude" in Foreign Reporting on China". China-US Focus. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
304. ^ Wu, By Frank H. (July 25, 2019). "Why I care about the Chinese". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
305. ISBN 978-1-59213-859-3
     .
306. ^ Snider, Mike. "Steve Bannon learned to harness troll army from 'World of Warcraft'". USA Today. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
307. ^ "Why Won't the Chinese Line Up?". HuffPost. May 25, 2014. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
308. ^ "Black in Beijing: How Transient Black Foreigners Create Community in China (page 106)".
309. ^ Rathi, Akshat (November 11, 2017). "My trip to China shattered my biases about developing nations". Quartz India. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
310. ^ "Why Chinese Tourists Absolutely Love This Luxury Outlet 46 Minutes Outside London". Time. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
311. ^ Kaiman, Jonathan. "At Shanghai Disney, there are fans and then there are superfans". baltimoresun.com. Archived from the original on December 24, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
312. ^ "Rain doesn't dampen the mood of opening day at Shanghai Disney". Los Angeles Times. June 16, 2016. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
313. ^ Smith, Mikey (October 17, 2014). "The Chinese iPhone 6 launch was very well behaved". mirror. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
314. ^ "Sichuan's Race Against Time". Radio Free Asia. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
315. ^ "Americans Love Canadian Visitors. British Tourists? Not So Much". TravelPulse. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
316. ^ "Most Americans Support Tough Stance Toward China on Human Rights, Economic Issues". Pew Research Center. March 4, 2021. Archived from the original on March 4, 2021.
317. ^ "How DeSantis' ban on Chinese homeownership has affected buyers and real estate agents 3 months in". October 18, 2023.
318. ^ Aidoo, Richard (2018). "Go Global, Meet the Locals: Pragmatism, Plunder, and Anti-Chinese Populism in Africa" (PDF). Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations. Seton Hall University.
319. ^ ^{a b} White, Edward (August 5, 2016). "Analysis: Unpacking Attacks on Chinese Workers in Africa". The News Lens. Archived from the original on August 7, 2016.
320. AFP News Agency. June 2013. Archived
     from the original on December 21, 2021.
321. ^ "Africans in One of China's Major Cities Say They Are Targets After a Spike in COVID-19". Time. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
322. ^ Olusegun Adeniyi (April 15, 2020). "China, COVID-19 and African Anger". This Day. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
323. ^ Rise in anti-Chinese violence in Kenya forces halt of major rail project. Posted on International Business Times. Posted by Elsa Buchanan, on August 19, 2016, 14:32 BST.
324. ^ TSG IntelBrief: Rising Sinophobia in Africa Archived December 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, July 31, 2013
325. S2CID 153502797
     .
326. Agence France Presse
     . November 9, 2018.
327. ^ Eric Olander, Cobus van Staden (September 2016). "Sinophobia In Zambia Is More Complex Than The International Press Presents". HuffPost.
328. ^
     TheGuardian.com
     . August 12, 2015.
329. ^ "Mandarin is putting in extra work to catch up with European languages in South African classrooms". February 6, 2019.
330. ^ Kuo, Lily (April 30, 2017). "Chinese migrants have changed the face of South Africa. Now they're leaving". Quartz Africa. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
331. ^ Western media should rethink its distorted portrayal of China's rise. Posted on South China Morning Post. Posted by L. K. Cheah on June 5, 2016, at 1:04pm.
332. ^ Negative Portrayal of Chinese in Hollywood Movies Archived May 2, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. China Daily Blog. Posted on July 11, 2016.
333. ^ Matt Damon on Great Wall whitewashing: 'I didn't take role from Chinese actor'. Posted by Andrew Pulver on December 7, 2016.
334. ^ ^{a b} Opinion | Beijing's Propaganda Crisis. New York Times. Posted by Murong Xuecun on March 17, 2014.
335. ^ China's secret internet police target critics with web of propaganda. Posted on The Guardian.com
336. ^ Propaganda and Censorship Are Reaching Fever Pitch on the Eve of China's Big Leadership Reshuffl. Time. Posted by Charlie Campbell, Beijing, on October 17, 2017.
337. S2CID 153335960
     .
338. ^ China's state broadcaster struggles to silence criticism it is a propaganda machine. Posted on ABC. Posted by Lisa Millar on November 16, 2014.
339. ChinaFile
     , October 16, 2017.
340. ISBN 978-1-4000-7637-6
     .
341. ISBN 978-1-59385-710-3
     .
342. ISBN 9789042023512
     . Retrieved August 23, 2010.
343. ^ 納粹中國 #Chinazi | 楊繼昌. 眾新聞 (in Chinese (Hong Kong)). Archived from the original on September 4, 2019. Retrieved September 5, 2019.
344. ^ VanderKlippe, Nathan (August 29, 2019). "In Hong Kong, protesters employ Nazi imagery as demonstrations erupt again". The Globe and Mail Inc.
345. ISSN 0099-9660
     . Retrieved April 19, 2020.
346. ^ "Protesters drop Nazi term after Western input - RTHK".
347. ^ "Pinoy or Tsinoy, What is the Problem?". September 13, 2013. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
348. ^ "Intsik". Archived from the original on February 19, 2014. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
349. ^ "Pinoy Slang - Tsekwa". Archived from the original on December 2, 2008. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
350. ^ "Kamus Slang Mobile". kamusslang.com. Archived from the original on February 2, 2017.
351. ISBN 978-0-520-93087-2
     .
352. ISBN 978-0-674-04029-8
     .
353. ISBN 978-0-19-069284-1
     .
354. ISBN 978-90-474-3370-5
     .
355. ^ "Police officer dispatched from Osaka insults protesters in Okinawa". The Japan Times Online. October 19, 2016. Retrieved November 25, 2019.
356. ISBN 9791159820205
     . Retrieved April 21, 2017.
357. ^ (in Korean) Jjangkkolla – Naver encyclopedia
358. ^ "떼놈. 때놈. 뙤놈?". December 13, 2014.
359. ^ "Celulares Xing-Ling: o que são e por que não comprá-los". TechTudo (in Brazilian Portuguese). December 13, 2011. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
360. ^ "'Pastel de flango'? Racismo anti-amarelos não é mimimi". Capricho (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved July 21, 2021.
361. ISBN 978-0-226-70389-3
     .
362. doi:10.1075/ttmc.3.2.06gia
     .
363. ^ ^{a b} Nguyễn, Ngọc Chính (May 27, 2019). "Ngôn ngữ Sài Gòn xưa: Những vay mượn từ người Tàu". Khoa Việt Nam Học. Người ta còn dùng các từ như Khựa, Xẩm, Chú Ba… để chỉ người Tàu, cũng với hàm ý miệt thị, coi thường.
364. ^ "Trung Cộng - Wiktionary". en.wiktionary.org.
365. ^ "Cảnh giác trước lời đe doạ của Trung Cộng". Radio Free Asia.
366. ^ "Vietlive.tv". www.facebook.com. Archived from the original on February 26, 2022.
367. ^ Pham, Ngoc Thuy Vi. "The Educational Development of the Chinese Community in Southern Vietnam" (PDF). National Cheng Kung University. p. 6. Also, according to the "Dictionnaire Annamite–français", "Chec" (Chệc) was the nickname that the Vietnamese people at that time used for Huaqiao. "Chệc" was also how the Annamites called the ethnic Chinese in an unfriendly way. (Chệc: Que les Annamites donnent aux Chinois surnom en mauvaise partie) (J. F. M. Genibrel 1898: 79).
368. ^ Nguyễn, Ngọc Chính (May 27, 2019). "Ngôn ngữ Sài Gòn xưa: Những vay mượn từ người Tàu". Khoa Việt Nam Học. "…Còn kêu là Chệc là tại tiếng Triều Châu kêu tâng Chệc nghĩa là chú. Người bên Tàu hay giữ phép, cũng như An-nam ta, thấy người ta tuổi đáng cậu, cô, chú, bác thì kêu tâng là chú là cậu vân vân. Người An-nam ta nghe vậy vịn theo mà kêu các ảnh là Chệc…"
369. ^ Ponniah, Kevin; Marinkovic, Lazara (May 7, 2019). "The night the US bombed a Chinese embassy". BBC News.
370. doi:10.1016/S0967-067X(98)00009-9
     .
371. SSRN 3637710 – via Social Science Research Network. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help
     )
372. ISSN 0140-0460
     .
373. ^ O'Hara, Mary Emily. "Mock Subway Posters Urge New Yorkers to Curb Anti-Asian Hate". www.adweek.com. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
374. ^ "'You deserve the coronavirus': Chinese people in UK abused over outbreak". Sky News. February 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
375. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. Retrieved July 1, 2020. 'Some Muslims stated that the disease was "divine retribution" for China's oppression of the Uighur minority
     . The problem lay in confusing the Chinese population with the actions of an authoritarian government which is known for its lack of transparency,' he stated.
376. ^ Solhi, Farah (January 26, 2020). "Some Malaysians calling for ban on Chinese tourists". New Straits Times.
377. ^ Cha, Hyonhee Shin (January 28, 2020). "South Koreans call in petition for Chinese to be barred over virus". Reuters – via www.reuters.com.
378. ISSN 0362-4331
     . Retrieved July 1, 2020.
379. ^ "Hunt for racist coronavirus attackers: Police release CCTV after assault". ITV News. March 4, 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2020.
380. ISSN 0362-4331
     . Retrieved July 1, 2020.
381. ^ "Trump: Asian-Americans not responsible for virus, need protection". Reuters. March 24, 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2020.
382. ^ "'Not racist at all': Donald Trump defends calling coronavirus the 'Chinese virus'". The Guardian -- YouTube. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021. Retrieved July 1, 2020.

Further reading

• Aarim-Heriot, Najia (2003). Chinese Immigrants, African Americans, and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848–82. University of Illinois Press.
• Ang, Sylvia, and Val Colic-Peisker. "Sinophobia in the Asian century: race, nation and Othering in Australia and Singapore." Ethnic and racial studies 45.4 (2022): 718–737. online^{[permanent dead link]}
• Billé, Franck. Sinophobia : anxiety, violence, and the making of Mongolian identity (2015) online
• Chua, Amy. World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability (Random House Digital, 2004) online
• Ferrall, Charles; Millar, Paul; Smith, Keren. (eds.) (2005). East by South: China in the Australasian imagination.
  Victoria University Press
  .
• Hong, Jane H. Opening the Gates to Asia: A Transpacific History of How America Repealed Asian Exclusion (University of North Carolina Press, 2019) online review
• Jain, Shree, and Sukalpa Chakrabarti. "The Dualistic Trends of Sinophobia and Sinophilia: Impact on Foreign Policy Towards China." China Report 59.1 (2023): 95–118. doi.org/10.1177/00094455231155212
• Lew-Williams, Beth. The Chinese Must Go: Violence, Exclusion, and the Making of the Alien in America (Harvard UP, 2018)
• Lovell, Julia. The Great Wall: China against the world, 1000 bc–ad 2000 (Grove/Atlantic, 2007). online
• Lovell, Julia. Maoism: A Global History (2019), a comprehensive scholarly history excerpt
• Lovell, Julia. "The Uses of Foreigners in Mao-Era China: 'Techniques of Hospitality' and International Image-Building in the People's Republic, 1949–1976." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 25 (2015): 135–158. online
• McClain, Charles J. (1996). In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle Against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America. University of California Press.
• Mungello, David E. (2009). The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500–1800. Rowman & Littlefield.
• Ngai, Mae. The Chinese Question: The Gold Rushes and Global Politics (2021), Mid 19c in California, Australia, and South Africa
• Ratuva, Steven. "The Politics of Imagery: Understanding the Historical Genesis of Sinophobia in Pacific Geopolitics." East Asia 39.1 (2022): 13–28. online
• Renshaw, Daniel. "Prejudice and paranoia: a comparative study of antisemitism and Sinophobia in turn-of-the-century Britain." Patterns of Prejudice 50.1 (2016): 38–60. around year 1900. online
• Schumann, Sandy, and Ysanne Moore. "The COVID-19 outbreak as a trigger event for sinophobic hate crimes in the United Kingdom." British Journal of Criminology 63.2 (2023): 367–383. online
• Slimming, John (1969). The Death of a Democracy. John Murray Publishers Ltd.
  ISBN 978-0-7195-2045-7
  . Book written by an Observer/UK journalist, who was in Kuala Lumpur at the time.
• Tsolidis, Georgina. "Historical Narratives of Sinophobia–Are these echoed in contemporary Australian debates about Chineseness?." Journal of Citizenship and Globalisation Studies 2.1 (2018): 39–48. online
• von Vorys, Karl (1975). Democracy Without Consensus: Communalism and Political Stability in Malaysia. Princeton University Press.
  ISBN 9780691617640
  .
• Ward, W. Peter (2002). White Canada Forever: Popular Attitudes and Public Policy Toward Orientals in British Columbia.
  McGill-Queen's Press
  . 3rd edition.
• Witchard, Anne. England's Yellow Peril: Sinophobia and the Great War (2014) excerpt

External links

• Media related to Anti-Chinese sentiment at Wikimedia Commons
• The dictionary definition of Sinophobia at Wiktionary