Winston Churchill
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Prime Minister of the United Kingdom | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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In office 26 October 1951 – 5 April 1955 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Deputy | Anthony Eden | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Clement Attlee | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Anthony Eden | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In office 10 May 1940 – 26 July 1945 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Monarch | George VI | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Deputy | Clement Attlee (de facto; 1942–1945) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Neville Chamberlain | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Succeeded by | Clement Attlee | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Born | Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill 30 November 1874 Blenheim, Oxfordshire, England | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Died | 24 January 1965 London, England | (aged 90)||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Resting place | St Martin's Church, Bladon, Oxfordshire | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Political party | Conservative (1900–1904, 1924–1964) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Other political affiliations | Liberal (1904–1924) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Spouse |
Clementine Hozier (m. 1908) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Children | 5, including Diana, Randolph, Sarah and Mary | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Years of service | 1893–1924 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Commands | 6th bn, Royal Scots Fusiliers | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill[a] (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British statesman, soldier, and writer who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, from 1940 to 1945 during the Second World War, and again from 1951 to 1955. Apart from two years between 1922 and 1924, he was a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1900 to 1964 and represented a total of five constituencies. Ideologically an adherent to economic liberalism and imperialism, he was for most of his career a member of the Conservative Party, which he led from 1940 to 1955. He was a member of the Liberal Party from 1904 to 1924.
Of mixed English and American parentage, Churchill was born in
Out of government during his so-called "
One of the 20th century's most significant figures, Churchill remains popular in the UK and the rest of the Anglosphere where he is generally viewed as a victorious wartime leader who played an important role in defending liberal democracy against the spread of fascism. While he has been criticised for his views on race and empire alongside some of his wartime decisions, historians often rank Churchill as the greatest prime minister in British history.
Early life
Childhood and schooling: 1874–1895
Churchill was born on 30 November 1874 at his family's ancestral home, Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire.[2] On his father's side, he was a member of the British aristocracy as a descendant of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough.[3] His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, representing the Conservative Party, had been elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Woodstock in 1874.[4] His mother, Jennie, was a daughter of Leonard Jerome, a wealthy American businessman.[5]
In 1876, Churchill's paternal grandfather,
Churchill began boarding at St George's School in Ascot, Berkshire, at age seven but was not academic and his behaviour was poor.[11] In 1884, he transferred to Brunswick School in Hove, where his academic performance improved.[12] In April 1888, aged 13, he narrowly passed the entrance exam for Harrow School.[13] His father wanted him to prepare for a military career and so his last three years at Harrow were in the army form.[14] After two unsuccessful attempts to gain admittance to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, he succeeded on his third.[15] He was accepted as a cadet in the cavalry, starting in September 1893.[16] His father died in January 1895, a month after Churchill graduated from Sandhurst.[17]
Cuba, India, and Sudan: 1895–1899
In February 1895, Churchill was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the
In India, Churchill began a self-education project,
Interested in British parliamentary affairs,
Churchill volunteered to join
Using his contacts in London, Churchill got himself attached to General
On 2 December 1898, Churchill embarked for India to settle his military business and complete his resignation from the 4th Hussars. He spent a lot of his time there playing polo, the only ball sport in which he was ever interested. Having left the Hussars, he sailed from Bombay on 20 March 1899, determined to launch a career in politics.[46]
Politics and South Africa: 1899–1901
Seeking a parliamentary career, Churchill spoke at Conservative meetings[48] and was selected as one of the party's two parliamentary candidates for the June 1899 by-election in Oldham, Lancashire.[49] While campaigning in Oldham, Churchill referred to himself as "a Conservative and a Tory Democrat".[50] Although the Oldham seats had previously been held by the Conservatives, the result was a narrow Liberal victory.[51]
Anticipating the outbreak of the
In January 1900, he briefly rejoined the army as a lieutenant in the South African Light Horse regiment, joining Redvers Buller's fight to relieve the Siege of Ladysmith and take Pretoria.[58] He was among the first British troops into both places. He and his cousin, the Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough, demanded and received the surrender of 52 Boer prison camp guards.[59] Throughout the war, he had publicly chastised anti-Boer prejudices, calling for them to be treated with "generosity and tolerance",[60] and after the war he urged the British to be magnanimous in victory.[61] In July, having resigned his lieutenancy, he returned to Britain. His Morning Post despatches had been published as London to Ladysmith via Pretoria and had sold well.[62]
Churchill rented a flat in London's
Conservative MP: 1901–1904
In February 1901, Churchill took his seat in the
By 1903, there was real division between Churchill and the Conservatives, largely because he opposed their promotion of
In May 1904, Churchill opposed the government's proposed Aliens Bill, designed to curb Jewish migration into Britain.
Liberal MP: 1904–1908
As a Liberal, Churchill attacked government policy and gained a reputation as a
In the new government, Churchill became
Asquith government: 1908–1915
President of the Board of Trade: 1908–1910
Asquith succeeded the terminally ill Campbell-Bannerman on 8 April 1908 and, four days later, Churchill was appointed President of the Board of Trade.[98] Aged 33, Churchill was the youngest Cabinet member since 1866.[99] Newly appointed Cabinet ministers were legally obliged to seek re-election at a by-election and on 24 April, Churchill lost the Manchester North West by-election to the Conservative candidate by 429 votes.[100] On 9 May, the Liberals stood him in the safe seat of Dundee, where he won comfortably.[101]
Churchill proposed marriage to
One of Churchill's first tasks as a minister was to arbitrate in an industrial dispute among ship-workers and employers on the River Tyne.[106] He afterwards established a Standing Court of Arbitration to deal with future industrial disputes,[107] establishing a reputation as a conciliator.[108] In Cabinet, he worked with Lloyd George to champion social reform.[109] He promoted what he called a "network of State intervention and regulation" akin to that in Germany.[110]
Continuing Lloyd George's work,
To ensure funding for their reforms, Lloyd George and Churchill denounced
Home Secretary: 1910–1911
In February 1910, Churchill was promoted to Home Secretary, giving him control over the police and prison services;[123] he implemented a prison reform programme.[124] Measures included a distinction between criminal and political prisoners, with prison rules for the latter being relaxed.[125] There were educational innovations like the establishment of libraries for prisoners,[126] and a requirement for each prison to stage entertainments four times a year.[127] The rules on solitary confinement were relaxed somewhat,[128] and Churchill proposed the abolition of automatic imprisonment of those who failed to pay fines.[129] Imprisonment of people aged between 16 and 21 was abolished except for the most serious offences.[130] Churchill reduced ("commuted") 21 of the 43 death ("capital") sentences passed while he was Home Secretary.[131]
One of the major domestic issues in Britain was women's suffrage. Churchill supported giving women the vote, but he would only back a bill to that effect if it had majority support from the (male) electorate.[132] His proposed solution was a referendum on the issue, but this found no favour with Asquith and women's suffrage remained unresolved until 1918.[133] Many suffragettes believed that Churchill was a committed opponent of women's suffrage,[134] and they targeted his meetings for protest.[133] In November 1910, the suffragist Hugh Franklin attacked Churchill with a whip; Franklin was arrested and imprisoned for six weeks.[134]
In November 1910, Churchill had to deal with the
Asquith called a general election in December 1910, and the Liberals were re-elected with Churchill secure in Dundee.[139] In January 1911, Churchill became involved in the Siege of Sidney Street; three Latvian burglars had killed several police officers and hidden in a house in the East End of London, which was surrounded by police.[140] Churchill stood with the police though he did not direct their operation.[141] After the house caught fire, he told the fire brigade not to proceed into the house because of the threat posed by the armed men. Afterwards, two of the burglars were found dead.[141] Although he faced criticism for his decision, he stated that he "thought it better to let the house burn down rather than spend good British lives in rescuing those ferocious rascals".[142]
In March 1911, Churchill introduced the second reading of the Coal Mines Bill in parliament. When implemented, it imposed stricter safety standards at coal mines.[143] He also formulated the Shops Bill to improve the working conditions of shop workers; it faced opposition from shop owners and only passed into law in a much emasculated form.[144] In April, Lloyd George introduced the first health and unemployment insurance legislation, the National Insurance Act 1911, which Churchill had been instrumental in drafting.[144] In May, Clementine gave birth to their second child, Randolph, named after Churchill's father.[145] In response to escalating civil strife in 1911, Churchill sent troops into Liverpool to quell protesting dockers and rallied against a national railway strike.[146]
During the Agadir Crisis of April 1911, when there was a threat of war between France and Germany, Churchill suggested an alliance with France and Russia to safeguard the independence of Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands to counter possible German expansionism.[147] The Agadir Crisis had a profound effect on Churchill and he altered his views about the need for naval expansion.[148]
First Lord of the Admiralty
In October 1911, Asquith appointed Churchill First Lord of the Admiralty,[149] and he took up official residence at Admiralty House.[150] He created a naval war staff[22] and, over the next two and a half years, focused on naval preparation, visiting naval stations and dockyards, seeking to improve morale, and scrutinising German naval developments.[151] After the German government passed its 1912 Naval Law to increase warship production, Churchill vowed that for every new battleship built by the Germans, Britain would build two.[152] He invited Germany to engage in a mutual de-escalation of naval building projects, but this was refused.[153]
Churchill pushed for higher pay and greater recreational facilities for naval staff,[154] an increase in the building of submarines,[155] and a renewed focus on the Royal Naval Air Service, encouraging them to experiment with how aircraft could be used for military purposes.[156] He coined the term "seaplane" and ordered 100 to be constructed.[157] Some Liberals objected to his levels of naval expenditure; in December 1913 he threatened to resign if his proposal for four new battleships in 1914–15 was rejected.[158] In June 1914, he convinced the House of Commons to authorise the government purchase of a 51 percent share in the profits of oil produced by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, to secure continued oil access for the Royal Navy.[159]
The central issue in Britain at the time was
As First Lord, Churchill was tasked with overseeing Britain's naval effort when the
Churchill was interested in the
In May, Asquith agreed under parliamentary pressure to form an all-party coalition government, but the Conservatives' condition of entry was that Churchill must be removed from the Admiralty.[177] Churchill pleaded his case with both Asquith and Conservative leader Bonar Law but had to accept demotion and became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.[178]
Military service, 1915–1916
On 25 November 1915, Churchill resigned from the government, although he remained an MP. Asquith rejected his request to be appointed
Churchill decided to return to active service with the Army and was attached to the 2nd Grenadier Guards, on the Western Front.[180] In January 1916, he was temporarily promoted to lieutenant-colonel and given command of the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers.[181][182] After a period of training, the battalion was moved to a sector of the Belgian Front near Ploegsteert.[183] For over three months, they faced continual shelling although no German offensive.[184] Churchill narrowly escaped death when, during a visit by his staff officer cousin the 9th Duke of Marlborough, a large piece of shrapnel fell between them.[185] In May, the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers were merged into the 15th Division. Churchill did not request a new command, instead securing permission to leave active service.[186] His temporary promotion ended on 16 May 1916, when he returned to the rank of major.[187]
Back in the House of Commons, Churchill spoke out on war issues, calling for conscription to be extended to the Irish, greater recognition of soldiers' bravery, and for the introduction of steel helmets for troops.[188] It was in November 1916 that he penned "The greater application of mechanical power to the prosecution of an offensive on land", but it fell on deaf ears.[189] He was frustrated at being out of office as a backbencher, but he was repeatedly blamed for the Gallipoli disaster, mainly by the pro-Conservative press.[190] Churchill argued his case before the Dardanelles Commission, whose published report placed no blame on him personally for the campaign's failure.[191]
Lloyd George government: 1916–1922
Minister of Munitions: 1917–1919
In October 1916, Asquith resigned as prime minister and was succeeded by Lloyd George who, in May 1917, sent Churchill to inspect the French war effort.[192] In July, Churchill was appointed Minister of Munitions.[193] He quickly negotiated an end to a strike in munitions factories along the Clyde and increased munitions production.[194] In his October 1917 letter to his Cabinet colleagues, he penned the plan of attack for the next year that would bring final victory to the Allies.[189] He ended a second strike, in June 1918, by threatening to conscript strikers into the army.[195] In the House of Commons, Churchill voted in support of the Representation of the People Act 1918, which gave some British women the right to vote.[196] In November 1918, four days after the Armistice, Churchill's fourth child, Marigold, was born.[197]
Secretary of State for War and Air: 1919–1921
Lloyd George called a general election with voting on 14 December 1918.[198] During the election campaign, Churchill called for the nationalisation of the railways, a control on monopolies, tax reform, and the creation of a League of Nations to prevent future wars.[199] He was returned as MP for Dundee and, although the Conservatives won a majority, Lloyd George was retained as prime minister.[199] In January 1919, Lloyd George moved Churchill to the War Office as both Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air.[200]
Churchill was responsible for demobilising the British Army,
In the
Secretary of State for the Colonies: 1921–1922
Churchill became Secretary of State for the Colonies in February 1921.
Churchill was involved in negotiations with
In September 1922, the
Also in September, Churchill's fifth and last child,
Out of Parliament: 1922–1924
Churchill spent much of the next six months at the Villa Rêve d'Or near Cannes, where he devoted himself to painting and writing his memoirs.[222] He wrote an autobiographical history of the war, The World Crisis. The first volume was published in April 1923 and the rest over the next ten years.[219]
After the
On 19 March 1924, alienated by Liberal support for Labour, Churchill stood as an independent anti-socialist candidate in the Westminster Abbey by-election but was defeated.[226] In May, he addressed a Conservative meeting in Liverpool and declared that there was no longer a place for the Liberal Party in British politics. He said that Liberals must back the Conservatives to stop Labour and ensure "the successful defeat of socialism".[227] In July, he agreed with Conservative leader Stanley Baldwin that he would be selected as a Conservative candidate in the next general election, which was held on 29 October. Churchill stood at Epping, but he described himself as a "Constitutionalist".[228] The Conservatives were victorious, and Baldwin formed the new government. Although Churchill had no background in finance or economics, Baldwin appointed him as Chancellor of the Exchequer.[229]
Chancellor of the Exchequer: 1924–1929
Becoming Chancellor on 6 November 1924, Churchill formally rejoined the Conservative Party.[230] As Chancellor, he intended to pursue his free trade principles in the form of laissez-faire economics, as under the Liberal social reforms.[230] In April 1925, he controversially albeit reluctantly restored the gold standard in his first budget at its 1914 parity against the advice of some leading economists including John Maynard Keynes.[231] The return to gold is held to have caused deflation and resultant unemployment with a devastating impact on the coal industry.[232] Churchill presented five budgets in all to April 1929. Among his measures were reduction of the state pension age from 70 to 65; immediate provision of widow's pensions; reduction of military expenditure; income tax reductions and imposition of taxes on luxury items.[233]
During the
The "Wilderness Years": 1929–1939
Marlborough and the India Question: 1929–1932
In the 1929 general election, Churchill retained his Epping seat, but the Conservatives were defeated, and MacDonald formed his second Labour government.[238] Out of office, Churchill was prone to depression (his "black dog") but addressed this by writing.[239] He began work on Marlborough: His Life and Times, a four-volume biography of his ancestor John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough.[240][241] It was by this time that he had developed a reputation for being a heavy drinker of alcoholic beverages, although Jenkins believes that was often exaggerated.[242]
Hoping that the Labour government could be ousted, he gained Baldwin's approval to work towards establishing a Conservative-Liberal coalition, although many Liberals were reluctant.[240] In October 1930, after his return from a trip to North America, Churchill published his autobiography, My Early Life, which sold well and was translated into multiple languages.[243]
In January 1931, Churchill resigned from the Conservative Shadow Cabinet because Baldwin supported the government's decision to grant
The
Having worked on Marlborough for much of 1932, Churchill in late August decided to visit his ancestor's battlefields.
Warnings about Germany and the abdication crisis: 1933–1936
After Hitler came to power on 30 January 1933, Churchill was quick to recognise the menace of such a regime and expressed alarm that the British government had reduced air force spending and warned that Germany would soon overtake Britain in air force production.[257][258] Armed with official data provided clandestinely by two senior civil servants, Desmond Morton and Ralph Wigram, Churchill was able to speak with authority about what was happening in Germany, especially the development of the Luftwaffe.[259] He told the people of his concerns in a radio broadcast in November 1934,[260] having earlier denounced the intolerance and militarism of Nazism in the House of Commons.[261] While Churchill regarded Mussolini's regime as a bulwark against the perceived threat of communist revolution, he opposed the Italian invasion of Ethiopia,[262] despite describing the country as a primitive, uncivilised nation.[263] He admired the exiled king of Spain Alfonso XIII and feared that Communism was making inroads during the Spanish Civil War. He referred to Franco's army as the "anti-red movement", but later became critical of Franco as too close to Mussolini and Hitler.[264][265]
Between October 1933 and September 1938, the four volumes of Marlborough: His Life and Times were published and sold well.[266] In December 1934, the India Bill entered Parliament and was passed in February 1935. Churchill and 83 other Conservative MPs voted against it.[267] In June 1935, MacDonald resigned and was succeeded as prime minister by Baldwin.[262] Baldwin then led the Conservatives to victory in the 1935 general election; Churchill retained his seat with an increased majority but was again left out of the government.[268]
In January 1936,
Anti-appeasement: 1937–1939
In May 1937, Baldwin resigned and was succeeded as prime minister by Neville Chamberlain. At first, Churchill welcomed Chamberlain's appointment but, in February 1938, matters came to a head after Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden resigned over Chamberlain's appeasement of Mussolini,[272] a policy which Chamberlain was extending towards Hitler.[273]
In 1938, Churchill warned the government against appeasement and called for collective action to deter German aggression. In March, the Evening Standard ceased publication of his fortnightly articles, but the
A country like ours, possessed of immense territory and wealth, whose defence has been neglected, cannot avoid war by dilating upon its horrors, or even by a continuous display of pacific qualities, or by ignoring the fate of the victims of aggression elsewhere. War will be avoided, in present circumstances, only by the accumulation of deterrents against the aggressor.
— Winston Churchill, [276]
He began calling for a mutual defence pact among European states threatened by German expansionism, arguing that this was the only way to halt Hitler.[277] In September, Germany mobilised to invade the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia.[278] Churchill visited Chamberlain at Downing Street and urged him to tell Germany that Britain would declare war if the Germans invaded Czechoslovak territory; Chamberlain was not willing to do this.[279] On 30 September, Chamberlain signed up to the Munich Agreement, agreeing to allow German annexation of the Sudetenland. Speaking in the House of Commons on 5 October, Churchill called the agreement "a total and unmitigated defeat".[280][281][282] Following the final dismemberment of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, Churchill and his supporters called for the foundation of a national coalition. His popularity increased and people began to agitate for his return to office.[22]
First Lord of the Admiralty: September 1939 to May 1940
Phoney War and the Norwegian Campaign
On 3 September 1939, the day Britain declared war on Germany, Chamberlain reappointed Churchill as First Lord of the Admiralty and he joined Chamberlain's war cabinet.[283] Churchill was one of the highest-profile ministers during the so-called "Phoney War". Churchill was ebullient after the Battle of the River Plate on 13 December 1939 and afterwards welcomed home the crews, congratulating them on "a brilliant sea fight".[284] On 16 February 1940, Churchill personally ordered Captain Philip Vian of the destroyer HMS Cossack to board the German supply ship Altmark in Norwegian waters freeing 299 British merchant seamen who had been captured by the Admiral Graf Spee. These actions, supplemented by his speeches, considerably enhanced Churchill's reputation.[284]
He was concerned about German naval activity in the Baltic Sea and initially wanted to send a naval force there but this was soon changed to a plan, codenamed Operation Wilfred, to mine Norwegian waters and stop iron ore shipments from Narvik to Germany.[285] There were disagreements about mining, both in the war cabinet and with the French government. As a result, Wilfred was delayed until 8 April 1940, the day before the German invasion of Norway.[286]
Norway Debate and Chamberlain's resignation
After the
Early on 10 May, German forces invaded Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands as a prelude to their
Prime Minister: 1940–1945
Dunkirk to Pearl Harbor: May 1940 to December 1941
War ministry created
In May, Churchill was still generally unpopular with many Conservatives and probably most of the Labour Party.[296] Chamberlain remained Conservative Party leader until October when ill health forced his resignation. By that time, Churchill had won the doubters over and his succession as party leader was a formality.[297]
He began his premiership by forming a
Resolve to fight on
At the end of May, with the
Churchill succeeded as an orator despite being handicapped from childhood with a speech impediment. He had a
His first speech as prime minister, delivered to the Commons on 13 May, was the "blood, toil, tears and sweat" speech. It was little more than a short statement but, Jenkins says, "it included phrases which have reverberated down the decades".[307] Churchill made it plain to the nation that a long, hard road lay ahead and that victory was the final goal:[308][309]
I would say to the House... that I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat. We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. You ask, what is our policy? I will say: it is to wage war, by sea, land and air, with all our might and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny, never surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: it is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without victory, there is no survival.
Churchill's use of rhetoric hardened public opinion against a peaceful resolution – Jenkins says Churchill's speeches were "an inspiration for the nation, and a catharsis for Churchill himself".[310]
Operation Dynamo and the Battle of France
We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender, and even if, which I do not for a moment believe, this island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British Fleet, would carry on the struggle, until, in God's good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the liberation of the old.
Germany initiated Fall Rot the following day and Italy entered the war on the 10th.[314] The Wehrmacht occupied Paris on the 14th and completed their conquest of France on 25 June.[315] It was now inevitable that Hitler would attack and probably try to invade Great Britain. Faced with this, Churchill addressed the Commons on 18 June with one of his most famous speeches, ending with this peroration:[316][317][318]
What General Weygand called the "Battle of France" is over. I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin. Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this island or lose the war. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duty and so bear ourselves that if the British Commonwealth and Empire lasts for a thousand years, men will still say: "This was their finest hour".
Churchill ordered the commencement of the Western Desert campaign on 11 June, an immediate response to the Italian declaration of war. This went well at first while the Italian army was the sole opposition and Operation Compass was a noted success. In early 1941, however, Mussolini requested German support and Hitler sent the Afrika Korps to Tripoli under the command of Generalleutnant Erwin Rommel, who arrived not long after Churchill had halted Compass so that he could reassign forces to Greece where the Balkans campaign was entering a critical phase.[319]
In other initiatives through June and July 1940, Churchill ordered the formation of both the
Battle of Britain and the Blitz
On 20 August 1940, at the height of the Battle of Britain, Churchill addressed the Commons to outline the war situation. In the middle of this speech, he made a statement that created a famous nickname for the RAF fighter pilots involved in the battle:[321][322]
The gratitude of every home in our Island, in our Empire, and indeed throughout the world, except in the abodes of the guilty, goes out to the British airmen who, undaunted by odds, unwearied in their constant challenge and mortal danger, are turning the tide of the World War by their prowess and by their devotion. Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.
The Luftwaffe altered its strategy from 7 September 1940 and began the Blitz, which was especially intensive through October and November. Churchill's morale during the Blitz was generally high and he told his private secretary John Colville in November that he thought the threat of invasion was past.[323] He was confident that Great Britain could hold its own, given the increase in output, but was realistic about its chances of actually winning the war without American intervention.[324]
Lend-Lease
In September 1940, the British and American governments concluded the
Churchill's good relations with United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt helped secure vital food, oil and munitions via the North Atlantic shipping routes.[326] It was for this reason that Churchill was relieved when Roosevelt was re-elected in 1940. Upon re-election, Roosevelt set about implementing a new method of providing necessities to Great Britain without the need for monetary payment. He persuaded Congress that repayment for this immensely costly service would take the form of defending the US. The policy was known as Lend-Lease and it was formally enacted on 11 March 1941.[327]
Operation Barbarossa
Hitler launched his
Atlantic Charter
In August 1941, Churchill made his first transatlantic crossing of the war on board HMS Prince of Wales and met Roosevelt in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland. On 14 August, they issued the joint statement that has become known as the Atlantic Charter.[329] This outlined the goals of both countries for the future of the world and it is seen as the inspiration for the 1942 Declaration by United Nations, itself the basis of the United Nations which was founded in June 1945.[330]
Pearl Harbor to D-Day: December 1941 to June 1944
Pearl Harbor and United States entry into the war
On 7–8 December 1941, the Japanese
On 26 December, Churchill addressed a joint meeting of the
While he was away, the Eighth Army, having already relieved the Siege of Tobruk, had pursued Operation Crusader against Rommel's forces in Libya, successfully driving them back to a defensive position at El Agheila in Cyrenaica. On 21 January 1942, however, Rommel launched a surprise counter-attack which drove the Allies back to Gazala.
Elsewhere, recent British success in the Battle of the Atlantic was compromised by the Kriegsmarine's introduction of its M4 4-rotor Enigma, whose signals could not be deciphered by Bletchley Park for nearly a year.[337] At a press conference in Washington, Churchill had to play down his increasing doubts about the security of Singapore, given Japanese advances.[338]
Fall of Singapore and loss of Burma
Churchill already had grave concerns about the fighting quality of British troops after the defeats in Norway, France,
The Bengal Famine
Meanwhile, the Japanese had occupied most of Burma by the end of April 1942. Counter-offensives were hampered by the monsoon season and by disordered conditions in Bengal and Bihar, as well as a severe cyclone which devastated the region in October 1942. A combination of factors, including the curtailment of essential rice imports from Burma, poor administration, wartime inflation and a series of large-scale natural disasters such as flooding and crop disease led to the Bengal famine of 1943,[341] in which an estimated 2.1–3.8 million people died.[342]
From December 1942, food shortages had prompted senior officials in India to ask London for grain imports, although the colonial authorities failed to recognise the seriousness of the emerging famine and responded ineptly.[343] Churchill's government was criticised for refusing to approve more imports, a policy it ascribed to an acute wartime shortage of shipping.[344] When the British realised the full extent of the famine in September 1943, Churchill ordered the transportation of 130,000 tons of grain to Bengal and the war cabinet agreed to send 200,000 tons by the end of the year.[345][346] During the last quarter of 1943, 100,000 tons of rice and 176,000 tons of wheat were imported, compared to averages of 55,000 and 54,000 tons respectively earlier in the year.[347]
In October, Churchill wrote to the newly appointed Viceroy of India,
Grain shipment requests continued to be turned down by the government throughout 1944, and Wavell complained to Churchill in October that "the vital problems of India are being treated by His Majesty's Government with neglect, even sometimes with hostility and contempt".[344][348] The relative impact of British policies on the death toll of the famine remains a matter of controversy.[349]
International conferences in 1942
On 20 May 1942, the Soviet Foreign Affairs minister, Vyacheslav Molotov, arrived in London to sign a treaty of friendship. Molotov wanted it done on the basis of certain territorial concessions regarding Poland and the Baltic countries. Churchill and Eden worked for a compromise and eventually a twenty-year treaty was formalised but with the question of frontiers placed on hold. Molotov was also seeking a Second Front in Europe; Churchill confirmed that preparations were in progress and made no promises on a date.[350]
Churchill felt pleased with these negotiations.
Churchill
In August, despite health concerns, Churchill visited the British forces in North Africa, raising morale in the process, en route to Moscow for
El Alamein and Stalingrad
While he was in Cairo in early August, Churchill decided to appoint
As 1942 drew to a close, the tide of war began to turn with Allied victory in the key battles of El Alamein and Stalingrad. Until November, the Allies had been on the defensive, but from November, the Germans were. Churchill ordered the church bells to be rung throughout Great Britain for the first time since early 1940.[357] On 10 November, knowing that El Alamein was a victory, he delivered one of his most memorable war speeches to the Lord Mayor's Luncheon at the Mansion House in London, in response to the Allied victory: "This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning".[357]
International conferences in 1943
In January 1943, Churchill met Roosevelt at the
Churchill made two transatlantic crossings during the year, meeting Roosevelt at both the
The most important conference of the year was 28 November to 1 December at Tehran, where Churchill and Roosevelt met Stalin in the first of the "Big Three" meetings, preceding those at Yalta and Potsdam in 1945. Roosevelt and Stalin co-operated in persuading Churchill to commit to the opening of a second front in western Europe and it was also agreed that Germany would be divided after the war, but no firm decisions were made about how.[363] On their way back from Tehran, Churchill and Roosevelt held a second Cairo conference with Turkish president İsmet İnönü, but were unable to gain any commitment from Turkey to join the Allies.[364]
Churchill went from Cairo to
Invasions of Sicily and Italy
In the autumn of 1942, after Churchill's meeting with Stalin in Moscow, he was approached by Eisenhower, commanding the
The invasion of Sicily began on 9 July and was successfully completed by 17 August. Churchill was all for driving straight up the Italian mainland with Rome as the main target, but the Americans wanted to withdraw several divisions to England in the build-up of forces for Operation Overlord, now scheduled for the spring of 1944. Churchill was still not keen on Overlord as he feared that an Anglo-American army in France might not be a match for the fighting efficiency of the Wehrmacht. He preferred peripheral operations, including a plan called
Preparations for D-Day
The difficulties in Italy caused Churchill to have a change of heart about Allied strategy to the extent that, when the Anzio stalemate developed soon after his return to England from North Africa, he threw himself into the planning of Overlord and set up an ongoing series of meetings with SHAEF and the British Chiefs of Staff over which he regularly presided. These were always attended by either Eisenhower or his chief of staff General Walter Bedell Smith. Churchill was especially taken by the Mulberry project but he was also keen to make the most of Allied air power which, by the beginning of 1944, had become overwhelming.[371] Churchill never fully lost his apprehension about the invasion, however, and underwent great fluctuation of mood as D-Day approached. Jenkins says that he faced potential victory with much less buoyancy than when he defiantly faced the prospect of defeat four years earlier.[372]
Need for post-war reform
Churchill could not ignore the need for post-war reforms covering a broad sweep of areas such as agriculture, education, employment, health, housing and welfare. The Beveridge Report with its five "Giant Evils" was published in November 1942 and assumed great importance amid widespread popular acclaim.[373] Even so, Churchill spent the majority of his focus on the war, and saw reform in terms of tidying up afterwards. His attitude was demonstrated in a Sunday evening radio broadcast on 26 March 1944. He was obliged to devote most of it to the subject of reform and showed a distinct lack of interest. In their respective diaries, Colville said Churchill had broadcast "indifferently" and Harold Nicolson said that, to many people, Churchill came across the air as "a worn and petulant old man".[374]
In the end, however, it was the population's demand for reform that decided the 1945 general election. Labour was perceived as the party that would deliver Beveridge. Arthur Greenwood had initiated its preceding social insurance and allied services inquiry in June 1941. Attlee, Bevin and Labour's other coalition ministers through the war were seen to be working towards reform and earned the trust of the electorate.[375][376]
Defeat of Germany: June 1944 to May 1945
D-Day: Allied invasion of Normandy
Churchill was determined to be actively involved in the
Quebec Conference, September 1944
Churchill met Roosevelt at the Second Quebec Conference from 12 to 16 September 1944. They reached agreement on the Morgenthau Plan for the Allied occupation of Germany after the war, the intention of which was not only to demilitarise but also de-industrialise Germany. Eden strongly opposed it and was later able to persuade Churchill to disown it. US Secretary of State Cordell Hull also opposed it and convinced Roosevelt that it was infeasible.[379]
Moscow Conference, October 1944
At the
Yalta Conference, February 1945
From 30 January to 2 February 1945, Churchill and Roosevelt met for their
Another outcome of Yalta was the so-called
Area bombing controversy
On the nights of 13–15 February 1945, some 1,200 British and US bombers attacked the German city of
The destruction of Dresden remains a serious query against the conduct of Allied bombing..... I feel the need for more precise concentration upon military objectives..... rather than on mere acts of terror and wanton destruction, however impressive.
British historian
VE Day (Victory in Europe Day)
On 7 May 1945 at the SHAEF headquarters in Reims the Allies accepted Germany's surrender. The next day was Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) when Churchill broadcast to the nation that Germany had surrendered and that a final ceasefire on all fronts in Europe would come into effect at one minute past midnight that night (i.e., on 9 May).[396] Afterwards, Churchill went to Buckingham Palace where he appeared on the balcony with the Royal Family before a huge crowd of celebrating citizens. He went from the palace to Whitehall where he addressed another large crowd: "God bless you all. This is your victory. In our long history, we have never seen a greater day than this. Everyone, man or woman, has done their best".[397]
At this point he asked Ernest Bevin to come forward and share the applause. Bevin said: "No, Winston, this is your day", and proceeded to conduct the people in the singing of For He's a Jolly Good Fellow.[397] In the evening, Churchill made another broadcast to the nation asserting that the defeat of Japan would follow in the coming months (the Japanese surrendered on 15 August 1945).[398]
Later in the month France attempted to put down a nationalist uprising in the Syria. Churchill intervened and on 31 May gave de Gaulle an ultimatum to desist, but this was ignored. In what became known as the Levant Crisis, British forces from Transjordan were mobilised to restore order. The French, heavily outnumbered, had no option but to return to their bases. De Gaulle felt humiliated, and a diplomatic row broke out - Churchill reportedly told a colleague that de Gaulle was "a great danger to peace and for Great Britain".[399]
Operation Unthinkable
In May 1945, Winston Churchill commissioned the British Chiefs of Staff Committee to provide its thoughts on a possible military campaign against the USSR, code-named Operation Unthinkable.[400] One plan involved a surprise attack on Soviet troops stationed in Germany in order to impose "the will of the United States and the British Empire" on the Soviets.[401] The hypothetical start date for the Allied invasion of Soviet-held Europe was set for 1 July 1945.[401]
Caretaker government: May 1945 to July 1945
With a general election looming, and with the Labour ministers refusing to continue the wartime coalition, Churchill resigned as prime minister on 23 May 1945. Later that day, he accepted the King's invitation to form a new government, known officially as the
Potsdam Conference
Churchill was Great Britain's representative at the post-war Potsdam Conference when it opened on 17 July and was accompanied at its sessions by Eden and Attlee. They attended nine sessions in nine days before returning to England for their election counts. After the landslide Labour victory, Attlee returned with Bevin as the new Foreign Secretary and there were a further five days of discussion.[404] Potsdam went badly for Churchill. Eden later described his performance as "appalling", saying that he was unprepared and verbose. Churchill upset the Chinese, exasperated the Americans and was easily led by Stalin, whom he was supposed to be resisting.[405]
General election, July 1945
Churchill mishandled the election campaign by resorting to party politics and trying to denigrate Labour.[406] On 4 June, he committed a serious political gaffe by saying in a radio broadcast that a Labour government would require "some form of Gestapo" to enforce its agenda.[407][408] It backfired badly and Attlee made political capital by saying in his reply broadcast next day: "The voice we heard last night was that of Mr Churchill, but the mind was that of Lord Beaverbrook". Jenkins says that this broadcast was "the making of Attlee".[409]
Although polling day was 5 July, the results of the election did not become known until 26 July, owing to the need to collect the votes of those serving overseas. Clementine and daughter Mary had been at the count in Woodford, Churchill's new constituency in Essex, and had returned to Downing Street to meet him for lunch. Churchill was unopposed by the major parties in Woodford, but his majority over a sole independent candidate was much less than expected. He now anticipated defeat by Labour and Mary later described the lunch as "an occasion of Stygian gloom".[410][411] To Clementine's suggestion that election defeat might be "a blessing in disguise", Churchill retorted: "At the moment it seems very effectively disguised".[410]
That afternoon Churchill's doctor Lord Moran (so he later recorded in his book The Struggle for Survival) commiserated with him on the "ingratitude" of the British public, to which Churchill replied: "I wouldn't call it that. They have had a very hard time".[411] Having lost the election, despite enjoying much personal support amongst the British population, he resigned as prime minister that evening and was succeeded by Attlee who formed the first majority Labour government.[412][413][414][415] Many reasons have been given for Churchill's defeat, key among them being that a desire for post-war reform was widespread amongst the population and that the man who had led Britain in war was not seen as the man to lead the nation in peace.[416][417] Although the Conservative Party was unpopular, many electors appear to have wanted Churchill to continue as prime minister whatever the outcome, or to have wrongly believed that this would be possible.[418]
Leader of the Opposition: 1945–1951
"Iron Curtain" speech
Churchill continued to lead the Conservative Party and served as
From
Stettin in the Baltic to Triestein the Adriatic, an Iron Curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere.
The essence of his view was that, though the Soviet Union did not want war with the western Allies, its entrenched position in Eastern Europe had made it impossible for the three great powers to provide the world with a "triangular leadership". Churchill's desire was much closer collaboration between Britain and America. Within the same speech, he called for "a special relationship between the British Commonwealth and Empire and the United States",[421] but he emphasised the need for co-operation within the framework of the United Nations Charter.[422]
European Politics
Churchill was an early proponent of
Having lived in Ireland as a child, Churchill always opposed its partition. As a minister in 1913 and again in 1921, he suggested that Ulster should be part of a
Labour won the 1950 general election, but with a much-reduced majority.[428]
Prime Minister: 1951–1955
Election result and cabinet appointments
Despite losing the popular vote to Labour, the Conservatives won an overall majority of 17 seats in the
Health issues to eventual resignation
Churchill was nearly 77 when he took office and was not in good health following several minor strokes.
On the evening of 23 June 1953, Churchill suffered a serious stroke and became partially paralysed down one side. The matter was kept secret and Churchill went home to Chartwell to recuperate. He had fully recovered by November.[440][441][442] He retired as prime minister in April 1955 and was succeeded by Eden.[443]
Foreign affairs
Churchill feared a
He enjoyed a good relationship with Truman but difficulties arose over the planned
Churchill had been obliged to recognise
Churchill was uneasy about the election of Eisenhower as Truman's successor. After Stalin died on 5 March 1953, Churchill sought a summit meeting with the Soviets but Eisenhower refused out of fear that the Soviets would use it for propaganda.[450][436][451] By July of that year, Churchill was deeply regretting that the Democrats had not been returned. He told Colville that Eisenhower as president was "both weak and stupid". Churchill believed that Eisenhower did not fully comprehend the danger posed by the H-bomb and he greatly distrusted Eisenhower's Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles.[452] Churchill hosted Eisenhower at the Three-Powers Bermuda Conference (with French Prime Minister Joseph Laniel being the third participant) in December 1953;[453][454] they met again in June/July 1954 at the White House.[455] In the end, the Soviets proposed a four-power summit, but it did not meet until 18 July 1955, three months after Churchill had retired.[456][457]
Later life: 1955–1965
Retirement: 1955–1964
Elizabeth II offered to create Churchill
After leaving the premiership, Churchill remained an MP until he stood down at the 1964 general election.[460] By the time of the 1959 general election, he seldom attended the House of Commons. Despite the Conservative landslide in 1959, his own majority in Woodford fell by more than 1,000. He spent most of his retirement at Chartwell or at his London home in Hyde Park Gate, and became a habitué of high society at La Pausa on the French Riviera.[461] In June 1962, when he was 87, Churchill had a fall in
Death, funeral and memorials
Churchill suffered his final stroke on 10 January 1965 and died twelve days later on 24 January.
Worldwide, numerous memorials have been dedicated to Churchill. His
He is one of only eight people to be granted honorary citizenship of the United States.[469] The United States Navy honoured him in 1999 by naming a new Arleigh Burke-class destroyer as the USS Winston S. Churchill.[470] Other memorials in North America include the National Churchill Museum in Fulton, Missouri, where he made the 1946 "Iron Curtain" speech; Churchill Square in central Edmonton, Alberta; and the Winston Churchill Range, a mountain range northwest of Lake Louise, also in Alberta, which was renamed after Churchill in 1956.[471]
The Churchill Archives Centre on the campus of Churchill College, Cambridge houses Churchill's personal papers and is open to the public.
Artist, historian, and writer
Churchill was a prolific writer. His output included a novel (Savrola), two biographies, memoirs, histories, and press articles. Two of his most famous works were his six-volume memoir, The Second World War, and the four-volume A History of the English-Speaking Peoples.[472] In recognition of his "mastery of historical and biographical description" and oratorial output, Churchill received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953.[473]
He used either "Winston S. Churchill" or "Winston Spencer Churchill" as his pen name to avoid confusion with the American novelist of the same name, whom he contacted, and had a friendly correspondence with.[474] For many years, he relied heavily on his press articles to assuage his financial worries.[475]
Churchill became an accomplished amateur artist beginning after his resignation from the Admiralty in 1915.[476] Often using the pseudonym "Charles Morin",[477] he completed hundreds of paintings, many of which are on show in the studio at Chartwell as well as in private collections.[478]
Churchill was an amateur bricklayer, constructing buildings and garden walls at Chartwell.[477] He joined the Amalgamated Union of Building Trade Workers but was expelled after he revived his membership of the Conservative Party.[477] He also bred butterflies.[479] He was known for his love of animals and always had several pets, mainly cats but also dogs, pigs, lambs, bantams, goats and fox cubs among others.[480] Churchill has been quoted as saying that "Dogs look up to you, cats look down on you. Give me a pig! He looks you in the eye and treats you as an equal".[481]
Legacy and assessments
"A man of destiny"
Roy Jenkins concludes his biography of Churchill by comparing him favourably with
I now put Churchill, with all his idiosyncrasies, his indulgences, his occasional childishness, but also his genius, his tenacity and his persistent ability, right or wrong, successful or unsuccessful, to be larger than life, as the greatest human being ever to occupy 10 Downing Street.
Churchill always self-confidently believed himself to be "a man of destiny".[482] Because of this he lacked restraint and could be reckless.[483][484] His self-belief manifested in his "affinity with war" of which, according to Sebastian Haffner, he exhibited "a profound and innate understanding".[485] Churchill considered himself a military genius but that made him vulnerable to failure and Paul Addison says the Gallipoli disaster was "the greatest blow his self-image was ever to sustain".[486] Jenkins points out, however, that although Churchill was excited and exhilarated by war, he was never indifferent to the suffering it causes.[487]
Political ideology
Part of the Politics series on |
Toryism |
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As a politician, Churchill was perceived by some observers to have been largely motivated by personal ambition rather than political principle.[488][489] During his early parliamentary career, he was often deliberately provocative and argumentative to an unusual degree;[490] and his barbed rhetorical style earned him many enemies in parliament.[491][492] On the other hand, he was deemed to be an honest politician who displayed particular loyalty to his family and close friends.[493] Robert Rhodes James said he "lacked any capacity for intrigue and was refreshingly innocent and straightforward".[494]
Until the outbreak of the Second World War, Churchill's approach to politics generated widespread "mistrust and dislike",
On the other hand, his detractors did not take Churchill's domestic reforms into account,[505] for he was in many respects a radical and a reformer,[506] but always with the intention of preserving the existing social structure,[507] displaying what Addison calls the attitude of a "benevolent paternalist".[508] Jenkins, himself a senior Labour minister, remarked that Churchill had "a substantial record as a social reformer" for his work in the early years of his ministerial career.[509] Similarly, Rhodes James thought that, as a social reformer, Churchill's achievements were "considerable".[510]
Imperialism and racial views
Churchill was a staunch
According to Addison, Churchill was opposed to immigration from the Commonwealth.
Churchill made a number of disparaging remarks about non-white ethnicities throughout his life. Historian Philip Murphy partly attributes the strength of this vitriol to an "almost childish desire to shock" his inner circle.
Cultural depictions
While the biographies by Addison, Gilbert, Jenkins and Rhodes James are among the most acclaimed works about Churchill, he has been the subject of numerous others. David Freeman counted 62 in English to the end of the 20th century.[523]
At a public ceremony in Westminster Hall on 30 November 1954, Churchill's 80th birthday, the joint Houses of Parliament presented him with a
Churchill has been widely depicted on stage and screen. Biographical films include Young Winston (1972), directed by Richard Attenborough and featuring Simon Ward in the title role; Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years (1981), starring Robert Hardy; The Gathering Storm (2002), starring Albert Finney as Churchill; Into the Storm (2009), starring Brendan Gleeson as Churchill; Darkest Hour (2017), starring Gary Oldman as Churchill. John Lithgow played Churchill in The Crown (2016–2019). Finney, Gleeson, Oldman and Lithgow all won major awards for their performances.[527][528][529][530]
Family and ancestry
Churchill married Clementine Hozier in September 1908.
The Churchills' first child, Diana, was born in July 1909;
Notes
- ^ The surname is the double-barrelled Spencer Churchill (unhyphenated), but he is known by the surname Churchill. His father dropped the Spencer.[1]
See also
References
Citations
- ^ Price 2009, p. 12.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 5.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 1; Jenkins 2001, pp. 3, 5.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 1; Best 2001, p. 3; Jenkins 2001, p. 7; Robbins 2014, p. 2.
- ^ Best 2001, p. 4; Jenkins 2001, pp. 5–6; Addison 2005, p. 7.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 1; Addison 2005, p. 9.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 2; Jenkins 2001, p. 7; Addison 2005, p. 10.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 8.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 2–3; Jenkins 2001, p. 10; Reagles & Larsen 2013, p. 8.
- ^ Best 2001, p. 6.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 3–5; Haffner 2003, p. 12; Addison 2005, p. 10.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 6–8; Haffner 2003, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 17–19.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 22; Jenkins 2001, p. 19.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 32–33, 37; Jenkins 2001, p. 20; Haffner 2003, p. 15.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 37; Jenkins 2001, p. 20–21.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 48–49; Jenkins 2001, p. 21; Haffner 2003, p. 32.
- ^ Haffner 2003, p. 18.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 51; Jenkins 2001, p. 21.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 62; Jenkins 2001, p. 28.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 56, 58–60; Jenkins 2001, pp. 28–29; Robbins 2014, pp. 14–15.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Herbert G. Nicholas, Winston Churchill at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 57.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 63; Jenkins 2001, p. 22.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 63; Jenkins 2001, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 23–24; Haffner 2003, p. 19.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 67–68; Jenkins 2001, pp. 24–25; Haffner 2003, p. 19.
- ^ Roberts 2018, p. 52.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 92.
- ^ Reagles & Larsen 2013, p. 8.
- ^ Addison 1980, p. 29; Reagles & Larsen 2013, p. 9.
- ^ Haffner 2003, p. 32; Reagles & Larsen 2013, p. 8.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 102.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 26.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 69; Jenkins 2001, p. 27.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 69, 71; Jenkins 2001, p. 27.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 70.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 72, 75; Jenkins 2001, pp. 29–31.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 79, 81–82; Jenkins 2001, pp. 31–32; Haffner 2003, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Addison 1980, p. 31; Gilbert 1991, p. 81; Jenkins 2001, pp. 32–34.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 819.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 89–90; Jenkins 2001, pp. 35, 38–39; Haffner 2003, p. 21.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 91–98; Jenkins 2001, pp. 39–41.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 34, 41, 50; Haffner 2003, p. 22.
- ^ Addison 1980, p. 32; Gilbert 1991, pp. 98–99; Jenkins 2001, p. 41.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 41–44.
- ^ Haffner 2003, p. x.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 42.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 103–104; Jenkins 2001, pp. 45–46; Haffner 2003, p. 23.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 104.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 105; Jenkins 2001, p. 47.
- ^ Ridgway, Athelstan, ed. (1950). Everyman's Encyclopaedia Volume Nine: Maps to Nyasa (Third ed.). London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd. p. 390. Retrieved 11 November 2020.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 105–106; Jenkins 2001, p. 50.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 107–110.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 111–113; Jenkins 2001, pp. 52–53; Haffner 2003, p. 25.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 115–120; Jenkins 2001, pp. 55–62.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 121; Jenkins 2001, p. 61.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 121–122; Jenkins 2001, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 123–124, 126–129; Jenkins 2001, p. 62.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 125.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 63.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 128–131.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 135–136.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 136.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 65.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 136–138; Jenkins 2001, pp. 68–70.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 141.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 139; Jenkins 2001, pp. 71–73.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 16; Jenkins 2001, pp. 76–77.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 141–144; Jenkins 2001, pp. 74–75.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 144.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 145.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 150.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 151–152.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 22.
- ^ a b Gilbert 1991, p. 162.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 153.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 152, 154.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 157.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 160; Jenkins 2001, p. 84.
- ^ a b Gilbert 1991, p. 165.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 165; Jenkins 2001, p. 88.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 173–174; Jenkins 2001, p. 103.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 174, 176.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 175; Jenkins 2001, p. 109.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 16; Gilbert 1991, p. 175.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 171; Jenkins 2001, p. 100.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 172.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 23; Gilbert 1991, p. 174; Jenkins 2001, p. 104.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 104–105.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 174; Jenkins 2001, p. 105.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 176; Jenkins 2001, pp. 113–115, 120.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 182.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 177.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 177; Jenkins 2001, pp. 111–113.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 183.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 33; Gilbert 1991, p. 194; Jenkins 2001, p. 129.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 129.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 194–195; Jenkins 2001, p. 130.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 195; Jenkins 2001, pp. 130–131.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 198–200.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 139–142.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 204–205.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 203.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 195.
- ^ a b Gilbert 1991, p. 199.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 200.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 143.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 193–194.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 196.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 203–204; Jenkins 2001, p. 150.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 204; Jenkins 2001, pp. 150–151.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 201; Jenkins 2001, p. 151.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 154–157; Toye 2007, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 198–199; Jenkins 2001, pp. 154–155.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 157–159.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 205, 210; Jenkins 2001, p. 164.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 206.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 211; Jenkins 2001, p. 167.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 167–168.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 216–217.
- ^ Moritz 1958, p. 429; Gilbert 1991, p. 211; Jenkins 2001, p. 169.
- ^ Moritz 1958, pp. 428–429; Gilbert 1991, p. 212; Jenkins 2001, p. 179.
- ^ Moritz 1958, p. 434; Gilbert 1991, p. 212.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 212; Jenkins 2001, p. 181.
- ^ Moritz 1958, p. 434; Gilbert 1991, p. 215.
- ^ Moritz 1958, p. 434; Gilbert 1991, p. 212; Jenkins 2001, p. 181.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 213.
- ^ Moritz 1958, p. 433; Gilbert 1991, pp. 213–214.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 183.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 221–222.
- ^ a b Jenkins 2001, p. 186.
- ^ a b c Gilbert 1991, p. 221.
- ^ a b Gilbert 1991, p. 219; Jenkins 2001, p. 198.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 220.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 199.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 38.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 222; Jenkins 2001, pp. 190–191, 193.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 222; Jenkins 2001, p. 194.
- ^ a b Gilbert 1991, p. 224; Jenkins 2001, p. 195.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 224.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 226; Jenkins 2001, pp. 177–178.
- ^ a b Gilbert 1991, p. 226; Jenkins 2001, p. 178.
- ^ a b Gilbert 1991, p. 227; Jenkins 2001, p. 203.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 230–233; Jenkins 2001, pp. 200–201.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 235.
- ^ Jenkins 2001, p. 202.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 239; Jenkins 2001, p. 205; Bell 2011, p. 335.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 249; Jenkins 2001, p. 207.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 23.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 243; Bell 2011, p. 336.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 243–245.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 247.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 242; Bell 2011, pp. 249–251.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 240.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 251.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 253–254; Bell 2011, pp. 342–343.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 260–261.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 256; Jenkins 2001, p. 233.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, pp. 44–45; Gilbert 1991, pp. 249–250; Jenkins 2001, pp. 233–234.
- ^ a b O'Brien 1989, p. 68.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, pp. 47–49; Gilbert 1991, pp. 256–257.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 257–258.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 277.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 277–279.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 279.
- ^ a b Gilbert 1991, p. 285.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 62; Gilbert 1991, pp. 282–285; Jenkins 2001, p. 249.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 62; Gilbert 1991, p. 286; Jenkins 2001, pp. 250–251.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 62.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 289.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 293, 298–99.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, pp. 64–67; Gilbert 1991, pp. 291–292; Jenkins 2001, pp. 255, 261.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, pp. 72–74; Gilbert 1991, pp. 304, 310.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 78; Gilbert 1991, p. 309.
- ^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 79; Gilbert 1991, pp. 316–316; Jenkins 2001, pp. 273–274.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 319–320; Jenkins 2001, p. 276.
- ^ Gilbert 1991, p. 328.
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- ISBN 978-03-95563-19-9.
- Sorrels, Roy W. (1984). "10 People Who Hated Portraits of Themselves". In Wallechinsky, David; Wallace, Irving; Wallace, Amy (eds.). The People's Almanac Book of Lists. New York City: William Morrow & Co. ISBN 978-05-52123-71-6.
- ISBN 978-07-47570-84-4.
- ISBN 978-06-84156-35-4.
- ISBN 978-14-05048-96-5.
Primary sources
- Churchill, Winston (1927). 1916–1918 (Parts I and II). The World Crisis. Vol. III. London: Thornton Butterworth.
- Churchill, Winston (1967b) [first published 1948]. The Twilight War: 3 September 1939 – 10 May 1940. The Second World War: The Gathering Storm. Vol. II (9th ed.). London: Cassell & Co. Ltd.
- ISBN 978-02-24020-65-7.
- Langworth, Richard (2008). Churchill by Himself. London: Ebury Press.
- ISBN 978-09-55948-30-5.
- ISBN 978-03-85406-91-8.
- ISBN 978-05-52770-92-7.
External links
- * Churchill's First World War from the Imperial War Museum.
- Winston Churchill on Nobelprize.org
Other references and online collections
- Works by Winston Churchill at Project Gutenberg
- Works by Winston S. (Spencer) Churchill at Faded Page (Canada)
- Works by or about Winston Churchill at Internet Archive
- Works by Winston Churchill at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Recordings
- EarthStation1: Winston Churchill Speech Audio Archive.
- Amateur colour film footage of Churchill's funeral from the Imperial War Museum.
Museums, archives and libraries
- Portraits of Winston Churchill at the National Portrait Gallery, London
- Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Winston Churchill
- "Archival material relating to Winston Churchill". UK National Archives.
- Records and images from the UK Parliament Collections.
- The International Churchill Society (ICS).
- Imperial War Museum: Churchill War Rooms. Comprising the original underground War Rooms preserved since 1945, including the Cabinet Room, the Map Room and Churchill's bedroom, and the new Museum dedicated to Churchill's life.
- War Cabinet Minutes (1942), (1942–43), (1945–46), (1946).
- Locations of correspondence and papers of Churchill at the UK National Archives.
- Newspaper clippings about Winston Churchill in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW