European enslavement of Indigenous Americans
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Slavery |
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During and after the
After the decolonization of the Americas, the enslavement of Indigenous peoples continued into the 19th century in frontier regions of some countries, notably parts of Brazil, Northern Mexico, and the Southwestern United States. Some Indigenous groups adopted European-style chattel slavery during the colonial period, most notably the "Five Civilized Tribes" in the United States, however far more Indigenous groups were involved in the selling of Indigenous slaves to Europeans.[6]
Colonial period
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European enslavement of Indigenous Americans began with the Spanish colonization of the Caribbean. In Christopher Columbus's letter to Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand of Spain describing the native Taíno, he remarks that "They ought to make good and skilled servants"[7] and "these people are very simple in war-like matters... I could conquer the whole of them with 50 men, and govern them as I pleased".[8] The Catholic Monarchs initially rejected Columbus' enthusiasm for the slave trade.[9] But although they issued a decree in 1500 that specifically forbade the enslavement of Indigenous people, they allowed three exceptions which were freely abused by colonial Spanish authorities: slaves taken in "just wars"; those purchased from other Indigenous people; or those from groups alleged to practice cannibalism (such as the Kalinago).[4]
As other European colonial powers joined the Spanish, the practice of Indigenous enslavement was expanded. The new international market for products like tobacco, sugar, and raw materials incentivized the creation of extraction- and plantation-based economies in eastern North America, such as English Carolina, Spanish Florida, and (Lower) French Louisiana. At first, slave labor for these colonies was obtained largely by trading with neighboring tribes, such as the Yamasee.[10] This trade in slaves was new: prior to the arrival of Europeans, tribes in eastern North America did not view slaves as commodities that could be bought and sold freely.[11][4][1][2] Anthropologist David Graeber argued that debt and the threat of violence made this sort of transformation of human beings into commodities possible. Tribes like the Yamasee raided for slaves in order to pay back the debt they owed to European traders for finished goods. This in turn created a demand for guns and ammunition, which further indebted the slave-raiding tribes and created a vicious cycle.[11] Most (but not all) tribes in eastern North America had not considered the status of slave heritable, and often integrated the children of slaves into their own communities.[citation needed] The export of slaves to European colonies (and the high death rates there) created an unprecedented population drain.[12] Slave-raiding also led to constant wars between tribes, and eventually destroyed or threatened to destroy most peoples in the vicinity of the colonies.[b][13][1][2][14] By the mid eighteenth century, population decline, frequent rebellions, and the availability of African slaves had caused a shift away from the large-scale enslavement of Indigenous peoples. Although it would be continued on the frontiers, in the economic cores of settler societies Indigenous slaves would be replaced with those of African origin.
Spanish colonies
By 1499, Spanish settlers on
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Genocide of Indigenous peoples |
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Issues |
Members of the Spanish religious and legal professions were especially vocal in opposing the enslavement of native peoples.
Despite being technically illegal, Indigenous slavery continued in Spanish America for centuries after the promulgation of the New Laws. Even in Spain itself, the use of Indigenous slaves did not end until the early 1600s. "Spanish masters resorted to slight changes in terminology, gray areas, and subtle reinterpretations to continue to hold Indians in bondage."
In the
In
French colonies
Enslavement of Indigenous peoples was practiced in
The importation of panis began to decline in the decade prior to the 1760
British colonies
During the 17th and 18th centuries,
The enslavement and trafficking of Indigenous American people was also practiced in the Province of Carolina, where historian Alan Gallay notes that during this period more slaves were exported from than imported to the major port of Charles Town.[4][67] What set Carolina apart from the other English colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America was a substantial population of potential slaves in its hinterlands.[68] The superiority of English trade goods over that of the competing French and Spanish also played an important role in centralizing trade in Carolina.[69] Sometimes the colonists captured the slaves themselves, but more often bought them from native tribes who came to specialize in slave raids. One of the first of these was the Westo, followed by many others including the Yamasee, Chickasaw, and Muscogee. Traded goods, such as axes, bronze kettles, Caribbean rum, European jewelry, needles, and scissors, varied among the tribes, but the most prized were rifles.[70] The depletion of Indigenous populations coupled with revolts (such as the Yamasee War) would eventually lead to Native Americans being replaced with African slaves in the colonial southeast.[71]
The exact number of Native Americans who were enslaved is unknown because vital statistics and census reports were at best infrequent.[72] Historian Alan Gallay estimates that from 1670 to 1715, English slave traders in Carolina sold between 24,000 and 51,000 Native Americans from what is now the southern part of the U.S.[73] Andrés Reséndez estimates that between 147,000 and 340,000 Native Americans were enslaved in North America, excluding Mexico.[74] Even after the Indian Slave Trade ended in 1750 the enslavement of Native Americans continued in the west, and also in the Southern states mostly through kidnappings.[75][34]
Portuguese Brazil
In Brazil, colonists were heavily dependent on Indigenous labor during the initial phases of settlement to maintain the
Postcolonial period
United States
After the mid-1700s, it becomes more difficult to track the history of Native American enslavement in what became the United States outside the territories that would be acquired after the Mexican–American War. Indian slavery had declined on a large scale, and as a result, those Native Americans who were still enslaved were either not recorded or they were not differentiated from African slaves.[72] For example, in Rhode Island Sarah Chauqum was listed her as a mulatto, but she won her freedom by proving her Narragansett identity.[80] That said, records and slave narratives archived by the Works Progress Administration (WPA) clearly indicate that the enslavement of Native Americans continued in the 1800s, mostly through kidnappings. One example is a WPA interview with a former slave, Dennis Grant, whose mother was full-blooded Native American.[75] She was kidnapped as a child near Beaumont, Texas in the 1850s, made a slave, and later forced to become the wife of another enslaved person.
Southwestern states
The
Both debt peonage and Navajo slaveholding were well established in New Mexico when it became a territory.[87] Native American slaves were in the households of many prominent New Mexicans, including the governor and Kit Carson.[88][89] Black slaves, in contrast, were vanishingly rare.[90] The Compromise of 1850 allowed New Mexico to choose its own stance on slavery, and in 1859, it was formally legalized.[91] This move was not without opposition: soon after the treaty had been signed, a group of prominent New Mexicans petitioned Congress to prevent slavery from being made legal. They were likely motivated by their desire for self-government and a fear of invasion by the slave state of Texas.[92][93] On June 19, 1862, Congress prohibited slavery in all US territories. Prominent New Mexicans petitioned the Senate for compensation for the 600 Indian slaves that were going to be set free.[94] The Senate denied their request and sent federal agents to abolish slavery. But the years from 1864 to 1866 saw an expansion rather than a decline of Native American enslavement in New Mexico. This was a consequence of the Long Walk of the Navajo, during which the federal government organized some 53 separate death marches of Navajo from their land in what is now Arizona to eastern New Mexico.[95][96] Taking advantage of their vulnerable position, Mexican and Ute enslavers captured many Navajo and sold them as slaves in places as far away as Conejos County, Colorado.[4][97][98][99] Thus, when Special Indian Agent J. K. Graves visited in June 1866, he found that slavery was still widespread, and many of the federal agents had slaves. In his report, he estimated that there were 400 slaves in Santa Fe alone.[4] On March 2, 1867, Congress passed the Peonage Act of 1867, which specifically targeted New Mexican slavery.[100] After this act, the number of slaves taken dropped sharply in the 1870s.[4]
Utah
Shortly after the
However, the Mormons strongly opposed the New Mexican slave trade, which caused sometimes dramatic conflicts with the slave traders. When Don Pedro León Luján was caught violating the Nonintercourse Act in November 1851 by attempting to trade slaves with the Indians without a valid license, he and his party were prosecuted.[citation needed] His property was seized and the child slaves were sold to Mormon families in Manti. In another incident, Ute Chief Arrapine demanded that the Mormons purchase a group of children that they had prevented him from selling to the Mexicans. When they refused, he executed the captives.[111]
In March 1852, the
Mexico
After
The Mexican secularization act of 1833 "freed" the Indigenous people attached to the missions of California, providing for distribution of land to mission Indigenous people and sale of remaining grazing land. But through grants and auctions, the bulk of the land was transferred to wealthy Californios and other investors. Any Indigenous people who had received land soon fell into debt peonage and became attached to the new Ranchos. The workforce was supplemented with Indigenous people who had been captured.[4]
Indigenous involvement in slavery
Indigenous peoples participated in the colonial era slave trade in several ways. During the period of widespread enslavement of Indigenous peoples, tribes such as the Westo,[119] Yamasee,[71] Shawnee[119] and others actively enslaved members of other tribes for sale to European settlers. As discussed above, this trade was especially prominent around the Province of Carolina in the 17th and early 18th centuries. In what would become the southwestern United States, the Comanche, Chiricahua, and Ute peoples played a similar role capturing and selling slaves, first to Mexican and then American settlers.[4] In Brazil, many bandeirantes (who captured and enslaved many Indigenous peoples) were of Indigenous or Mameluco origins themselves.
Some Indigenous groups also adopted the European practice of African
See also
- Atlantic Slave Trade
- Blackbirding
- European colonization of the Americas
- Genocide of Indigenous peoples
- History of colonialism
- Indian indenture system
- Mississippian shatter zone
- The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America
Notes
- ^ Rushforth estimates "between two and four million Indian slaves", while Reséndez estimates between 2.462 and 4.985 million Indigenous people were enslaved.
- ^ "The English empire was also able to consume as much of the natives' commodities as the natives could produce, including the trade in enslaved Indigenous people. This trade infected the South: it set in motion a gruesome series of wars that engulfed the region. For close to five decades, virtually every group of people in the South lay threatened by destruction in these wars. Huge areas became depopulated, thousands of Indigenous people died, and thousands more Indigenous people were forcibly relocated to new areas in the South or exported from the region."
- ^ In 2007, Castro challenged the position of Bartolomé de las Casas as a central human-rights figure: "rather than viewing him as the ultimate champion of Indigenous causes, we must see the Dominican friar as the incarnation of a more benevolent, paternalistic form of ecclesiastical, political, cultural and economic imperialism rather than as a unique paradigmatic figure". See: Castro, The Other Face, Duke, 2007, p 8.
- ^ While Philip and the vast majority of hostile Natives were killed outright during the war or sold into slavery in the West Indies, the friendly Wampanoag at Manomet Ponds retained their lands.
- Hassanamesit, the story whereof follows in its place; and one of them, viz. Sampson, was slain in fight, by some scouts of our praying Indians, about Watchuset; and the other, Joseph, taken prisoner in Plymouth Colony, and sold for a slave to some merchants at Boston, and sent to Jamaica, but upon the importunity of Mr. Elliot, which the master of the vessel related to him, was brought back again, but not released. His two children taken prisoners with him were redeemed by Mr. Elliot, and afterward his wife, their mother, taken captive, which woman was a sober Christian woman and is employed to teach school among the Indians at Concord, and her children are with her, but her husband held as before, a servant; though several that know the said Joseph and his former carriage, have interceded for his release, but cannot obtain it; some informing authority that he had been active against the English when he was with the enemy.
- ^ Sampson was killed by a group of English colonists near Wachuset, and Joseph was captured and sold into slavery in the West Indies.
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Further reading
- Brown, Harry J.; Hans Staden Among the Tupinambas
- Carocci, Max; Written Out of History: Contemporary Native American Narratives of Enslavement (2009)
- Gallay, Alan; Forgotten Story of Indian Slavery (2003).
- "English Trade in Deerskins and Indian Slaves" Archived 5 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine, New Georgia Encyclopedia
- Aframerindian Slave Narratives index - Website, Aframerindian Slave Narratives