Slavery in Haiti
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Slavery in Haiti began after the arrival of
The
Unpaid labor is still a practice in Haiti. As many as half a million children are unpaid
The devastating earthquake in 2010 displaced many, rendering them homeless, isolated, and supremely vulnerable to exploitation by traffickers. The chaos following the quake also distracted authorities and hindered efforts to stop trafficking. The government has taken steps to prevent and stop trafficking, ratifying human rights conventions and enacting laws to protect the vulnerable, but enforcement remains difficult. The U.S. State Department's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons placed the country in "Tier 2 Watchlist" in 2017.[3]
History
Spanish Hispaniola (1492–1625)
The natives living on the island that would come to be called Hispaniola welcomed Christopher Columbus and his crew when they landed on the island in October 1492. In the
When Columbus arrived in what is today Haiti in December 1492 and met the native
When Columbus returned to Europe in 1493, 30 Spaniards stayed[8] to build a fort there called La Navidad. They began stealing from, raping, and enslaving the natives—in some cases they held native women and girls as sex slaves.[9] Finding gold was a chief goal for the Spanish; they quickly forced enslaved natives to work in gold mines, which took a heavy toll in life and health.[10] In addition to gold the slaves mined copper, and they grew crops for the Spaniards.[11]
In response to the brutality, the natives fought back.
It is not known how many Taino people were on the island prior to Columbus's arrival – estimates range from several thousand to eight million – but overwork in slavery and diseases introduced by the Europeans quickly killed a large part of the population.[17] Between 1492 and 1494, one third of the native population on the island died.[15] Two million had been killed within ten years of the Spaniards' arrival [11] and by 1514, 92% of the native population of the island had died from enslavement and European diseases.[18] By the 1540s, the culture of the natives had disappeared from the island,[19] and by 1548 the native population was under 500.[15] The rapid rate at which the native slaves died necessitated the import of Africans,[18] for whom contact with Europeans was not new and who therefore had already developed some immunity to European diseases.[20] Columbus's son Diego Columbus started the African slave trade to the island in 1505.[21] Some newly arrived slaves from Africa and neighboring islands were able to escape and join maroon communities in the mountains.[22] In 1519, Africans and Native Americans joined forces to start a slave rebellion that turned into a years-long uprising, which was eventually crushed by the Spanish in the 1530s.[21]
Spanish missionary Bartolomé de las Casas spoke out against enslavement of the natives and the brutality of the Spaniards.[23] He wrote that to the natives, the Christianity brought by the Spaniards had come to symbolize the brutality with which they had been treated; he quoted one Taino cacique (tribal chief), "They tell us, these tyrants, that they adore a God of peace and equality, and yet they usurp our land and make us their slaves. They speak to us of an immortal soul and of their eternal rewards and punishments, and yet they rob our belongings, seduce our women, violate our daughters."[14] Las Casas commented that the Spaniards' punishment of a Taino man by cutting off his ear "marked the beginning of the spilling of blood, later to become a river of blood, first on this island and then in every corner of these Indies."[14] Las Casas' campaign led to an official end of the enslavement of Tainos in 1542; however, it was replaced by the African slave trade.[23] As Las Casas had presaged, the Spaniards' treatment of the Tainos was the start of a centuries-long legacy of slavery in which abuse such as amputating body parts was commonplace.[14]
Saint Domingue (1625–1789)
The Spanish ceded control of the western part of the island of Hispaniola to the French in the
While the French controlled Saint Domingue, they maintained a class system which covered both whites and free people of color. These classes divided up roles on the island and established a hierarchy. The highest class, known as the grands blancs (white noblemen), was composed of rich nobles, including royalty, and mainly lived in France. These individuals held most of the power and controlled much of the property on Saint-Domingue. Although their group was very small and exclusive, they were quite powerful.
Below the grands blancs (white noblemen) were the petits blancs (white commoners) and the gens de couleur libres (free people of color). These classes inhabited Saint Domingue and held a lot of local political power and control of the militia. Petits blancs shared the same societal level as gens de couleur libres.
The
Members of the petit blanc class began to distance themselves from gens de couleur libres and denigrate them. Influence by the
Planters took care to treat slaves well in the beginning of their time on the plantation, and they slowly integrated slaves into the plantation's labor system. On each plantation there was a black commander who supervised the other slaves on behalf of the planter, and the planter made sure not to favor one African ethnic group over others. Most slaves who came to Saint-Domingue worked in fields or shops; younger slaves often became household servants, and old slaves were employed as surveillants. Some slaves became skilled workmen, and they received privileges such as better food, the ability to go into town, and liberté des savanes (savannah liberty), a sort of freedom with certain rules. Slaves were considered to be valuable property, and slaves were attended by doctors who gave medical care when they were sick.[27]
There were numerous kinds of plantations in Saint-Domingue. Some planters produced indigo, cotton, and coffee; these plantations were small in scale, and usually only had 15-30 slaves, creating an intimate work environment. However, the most valuable plantations produced sugar. The average sugar plantation employed 300 slaves, and the largest sugar plantation on record employed 1400 slaves. These plantations took up only 14% of Saint-Domingue's cultivated land; comparatively, coffee was 50% of all cultivated land, indigo was 22%, and cotton only 5%. Because of the comparative investment requirement between sugar plantations and all other plantation types, there was a big economic gap between normal planters and sugar "lords."[27]
While grands blancs owned 800 large scale sugar plantations, the petits blancs and gens de couleur (people of color) owned 11,700 small scale plantations, of which petits blancs owned 5,700 plantations, counting 3,000 indigo, 2,000 coffee, and 700 cotton; the affranchis and Creoles of color owned 6,000 plantations that mainly produced coffee of which they held an economic monopoly.[28]
Some sugar planters, bent on earning high sugar yields, worked their slaves very hard. Costs to start a sugar cane plantation were very high, often causing the proprietor of the plantation to go into deep debt.
Over the colony's hundred-year course, about a million slaves succumbed to the conditions of slavery.[33] Some slaves of African ethnicities who believed in metempsychosis, the belief of the soul's migration at death, committed suicide shortly after arriving on the island, as they believed that in death they could return to their home territory where they would regain the rank, wealth, relatives, and friends that they had.[34][35] Some pregnant slaves living in poor conditions on sugar plantations did not survive long enough or have healthy enough pregnancies to birth live babies, but if they did, the children often died young due to malnourishment.[31] On some sugar plantations, food was insufficient, and slaves were expected to grow and prepare it for themselves on top of their 12-hour workdays.[36]
In 1685, the French king
About 48,000 slaves in Saint Domingue escaped from their plantation; slaveholders hired
Enslaved Africans who fled to remote mountainous areas were called marron (
In 1776-7, a joint French-Spanish expedition ventured into the border regions of the Bahoruco mountains, with the intention of destroying the maroon settlements there. However, the maroons had been alerted of their coming, and had abandoned their villages and caves, retreating further into the mountainous forests where they could not be found. The detachment eventually returned, unsuccessful, and having lost many soldiers to illness and desertion. In the years that followed, the maroons attacked a number of settlements, including Fond-Parisien, for food, weapons, gunpowder and women. It was on one of these excursions that one of the maroon leaders, Kebinda, who had been born in freedom in the mountains, was captured. He later died in captivity.[43]
In 1782, de Saint-Larry decided to offer peace terms to one of the maroon leaders, Santiago, granted them freedom in return for which they would hunt all further runaways and return them to their owners. Eventually, at the end of 1785, terms were agreed, and the more than 100 maroons under Santiago's command stopped making incursions into French colonial territory.[44]
In addition to escaping, slaves resisted by poisoning slaveholders, their families, their livestock, and other slaves — this was a common and feared enough occurrence that in, December 1746, the French king banned poisoning in particular.[35] Arson was another form of slave resistance.[35]
In 1791,
Many of the slaves who fought during the Haitian Revolution were warriors who had been captured in war and enslaved by an opposing African ethnic group.[45] Before the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789, there were eight times as many slaves in the colony as there were whites and free people of color people combined.[46] In 1789, the French were importing 30,000 slaves a year and there were half a million slaves in the French part of the island alone, compared to about 40-45,000 whites and 32,000 free people of color.[47][28]
Revolutionary period (1789–1804)
The French Revolution in 1789 presented an opportunity for Saint-Domingue's middle class to organize a revolt, which was followed shortly thereafter by them inciting a general slave revolt.[48] In 1791, slaves revolted, massacring whites and torching plantations.
Two civil commissioners, Sonthonax and Polverel, were sent to the colony to implement the decree of April 4, 1792, which gave to free people of color and free Blacks the same rights as for the Whites. Their goal was also to maintain slavery and fight the slaves who revolted. Faced with the impossibility of suppressing the revolt, and confronted with the Spanish and the English, they were forced, in order to keep the hope of conserving Saint-Domingue to France, to give freedom to the slaves who would agree to fight alongside them, and then to extend this freedom to all the slaves of the colony.[49] By February 1794, when the French government abolished slavery throughout its empire, all the slaves of Saint-Domingue had already been freed.
Although slavery was outlawed, Louverture, believing that the plantation economy was necessary, forced laborers back to work on the plantations using military might.[50] By 1801, the revolt had succeeded, and Toussaint Louverture, having fetched control of the revolt and eliminated all opposition on the island, declared himself Governor-General-for-life of Saint-Domingue.[51]
With a view toward re-establishing slavery, Napoleon Bonaparte sent his brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc, to regain control of Haiti, along with a fleet of 86 ships and 22,000 soldiers.[52] The Haitians resisted the soldiers, but the French were more numerous and better positioned, until the rainy season brought yellow fever.[53] As French soldiers and officers died, black Haitian soldiers who had allied themselves with the French began to defect to the other side.[54]
Jean-Jacques Dessalines
In 1802, Louverture was arrested and deported to France, where he later died in prison, leaving leadership of the military to Jean-Jacques Dessalines. In 1804, the French were defeated.[39] France officially gave up control of Haiti, making it the second independent country in the Americas (after the U.S.) and the first successful slave revolt in the world.[48] Dessalines was the country's leader, first naming himself Governor-General-for-life, then Emperor of Haiti.
After the revolution, newly freed slaves were violently opposed to remaining on plantations, but Dessalines, like Louverture, used military might to keep them there, thinking that plantation labor was the only way to make the economy function.[55] Most ex-slaves viewed Dessalines' rule as more of the same oppression they had known during de jure slavery.[55] Dessalines was killed by a mob of his own officers in 1806.[56]
Henri Christophe
Dessalines' successor was King
Also like his predecessors Louverture and Dessalines, Christophe used military might to force former slaves to stay on the plantations.[59] Plantation workers under Louverture and Christophe were not unpaid — they received one quarter of what they produced,[60] paying the rest to plantation owners and the government. Under Christophe's rule it was also possible for black people to rent their own land or work in government, and agricultural workers on plantations could make complaints to the royal administration about working conditions.[61] These ex-slaves might have also sometimes had a choice about what plantation they would work on — but they could not choose not to work, and they could not legally leave a plantation they were "attached" to.[62] Many ex-slaves were probably forced to work on the same plantations they had worked on as slaves.[63]
The population's staunch resistance to working on plantations — owned by whites or otherwise — made it too difficult to perpetuate the system, despite its profitability.[64] Christophe and other leaders enacted policies allowing state land to be broken up and sold to citizens, and the plantation system largely gave way to one in which Haitians owned and farmed smaller lots.[64]
Jean-Pierre Boyer
In 1817, a Haitian ship seized a Spanish slave ship bound for Cuba which had entered Haiti's waters, and, acting on standing government orders, brought it ashore.[65] All 171 captive Africans were liberated and joyfully accepted into Haitian society, and President Jean-Pierre Boyer himself served as their godfather.[65] The ship's captain, and later Cuban officials, protested to Boyer that his trade was legal, but Boyer maintained that the 1816 constitution decreed there could be no slaves in Haitian territory, and no reimbursement could be given for their value.[65] Slave ships had also been seized and their human cargo freed under previous leaders Christophe and Alexandre Pétion, and slaves who managed to take control of ships and arrive in Haiti were given asylum.[65] Slavers quickly learned to avoid Haiti's waters.[65]
In 1825, France sent an armada to Haiti and threatened to blockade the country, preventing trade unless Boyer agreed to pay France 150,000,000
Under pressure to produce money to pay the debt, in 1826 Boyer enacted a new set of laws called the Code Rural that restricted agricultural workers' autonomy, required them to work, and prohibited their travel without permission.[73] It also reenacted the system of Corvée, by which police and government authorities could force residents to work temporarily without pay on roads.[73] These laws met with widespread resistance and were difficult to enforce since the workers' access to land provided them autonomy and they were able to hide from the government.[74]
The United States passed laws to keep Haitian merchants away from U.S. soil because slaveholders there did not want their slaves getting ideas about revolt from the Haitians.[75] However, the two countries continued trade, with Haiti purchasing the weapons it needed,[75] albeit at disadvantageous prices. The U.S. embargo of Haiti lasted 60 years, but Lincoln declared it unnecessary to deny the country's independence once the institution in the United States began to be ended.[76] He encouraged newly freed slaves to emigrate there to attain a freedom he did not deem possible in the United States.[76]
Unfree labor during US occupation
In July 1915, after political unrest and the mob murder of Haiti's president Vilbrun Guillaume Sam, the United States Marine Corps invaded Haiti.[77] Prior to the occupation peasants had staged uprisings to resist moves by US investors to appropriate their land and convert the style of agriculture in the area from subsistence back to a plantation-like system—the idea of going back to anything like the plantation system faced fierce resistance.[78] Haitians had been afraid that U.S. investors were trying to convert the economy back into a plantation-based one, since U.S. businesses had been amassing land and evicting rural peasants from their family land.[78] Rural Haitians formed armies that roamed around the countryside, stealing from farmers and raping women.[78] The motivation of the US occupation of Haiti was partly to protect investments[79] and to prevent European countries from gaining too much power in the area.[80] One stated justification for the occupation had been ending the practice of enslaving children as domestic servants in Haiti; however, the United States also then reinstituted the practice of forced labor under the corvée system.[81]
As had occurred under the regimes of Dessalines and Christophe,
Reparations for slavery
Reparations for slavery is the application of the concept of reparations to victims of slavery and/or their descendants.[90] In Haiti this has not occurred, but instead, Haiti paid for more than 120 years to France in order to obtain a "formal recognition" of freedom by France.
Haiti indemnity controversy
In July 1825,
President
Reparations for slavery in Haiti
In 2004, the Haitian government demanded that France repay Haiti for the millions of dollars paid between 1825 and 1947 as compensation for the property loss of French slaveholders and landowners as a result of the slaves' freedom.[100]
Modern day
Even though slavery has been prohibited for more than a century, many criminal organizations have practiced
Slavery is still widespread in Haiti today. According to the 2014
Haiti has more
Haitians are trafficked out of Haiti and into the neighboring Dominican Republic, as well as to other countries such as Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil, and North American countries as well.[105][106] Haiti is also a transit country for victims of trafficking en route to the United States.[101] After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, human trafficking has drastically increased.[107] While trafficking often implies moving, particularly smuggling people across borders, it only requires "the use of force, fraud, or coercion to exploit a person for profit," and it is understood to be a form of slavery.[108]
For this reason both houses of
Children
The restavek system accounts for the lion's share of human trafficking in Haiti.[108] Families send the children into other households, exchanging their labor for upbringing.[111] Impoverished rural parents hope for education and a better life for their children in the city,[112] sending them to wealthier (or at least less poor) households.[113] Increasingly, children enter domestic servitude when a parent dies.[113] Paid middlemen may act as recruiters, fetching the children for the host families.[108][113][114] Unlike slaves in the traditional sense, restaveks are not bought or sold or owned, could run away or return to their families, and are typically released from servitude when they become adults; however, the restavek system is commonly understood to be a form of slavery.[108]
Some restaveks do receive proper nutrition and education, but they are in the minority.[114] Restaveks' labor includes hauling water and wood, grocery shopping,[114] laundry, house cleaning, and childcare.[113] Restaveks work long hours (commonly 10 to 14 a day) under harsh conditions, are frequently denied schooling, and are at severe risk of malnutrition and verbal, physical, and sexual abuse.[113] Beatings are a daily occurrence for most restaveks, and most of the girls are sexually abused,[115] which puts them at an elevated risk for HIV infection.[116] Those who are thrown out or run away from their host homes become street children, vulnerable to exploitation including forced prostitution.[105] Those who return to their families may be unwelcome as an added economic burden or shamed and stigmatized for having been a restavek.[110] The trauma of abuse and the deprivation of free time and normal childhood experiences can stunt a child's development and have long-lasting effects.[110][113]
The term restavek comes from the French "to live with", rester avec.
Children are also trafficked out of Haiti by organizations claiming to be adoption agencies, into countries including the U.S. – but some are actually kidnapped from their families.
Sex slavery
Although a majority of the modern-day slavery cases in Haiti are due to the practice of the restavek system, trafficking for
Suspicion was raised in 2007 that
Haitian–Dominican border
For decades Haitians have been crossing the Haitian-Dominican border for various reasons, including voluntary and involuntary migration, long- and short-term residence in the
Most people who move across the border are women and girls. The migration of Haitian women to the
Women from the Dominican Republic have also reportedly been trafficked into Haiti to be sex slaves.[105]
Government action
HAITI | Ratified |
---|---|
Forced Labour Convention | Yes[108] |
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery | Yes[108] |
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights | Yes[108] |
Convention on the Rights of the Child | Yes[108] |
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
|
Yes[108] |
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children | Yes[134] |
UN Trafficking Protocol
|
No[135] |
Domestic Work Convention | No[136] |
The 2014 U.S.
Anti-restavek action
In accordance with these international conventions, Haitian law prohibits abuse, violence, exploitation and servitude of children of any kind that is likely to harm their safety, health, or morals.
Prosecution and protection
The government took steps to legally address the issue of trafficking of women and children by submitting a bill to
People displaced by the 2010 earthquake are at an increased risk of sex trafficking and forced labor.
Since the 2010 Haiti earthquake, international aid and domestic effort has been focused on relief and recovery, and as a result few resources have been set aside for combating modern day slavery.[101] There are no government-run shelters to aid human trafficking victims. The government refers victims to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) for services like food and medical care.[139] The majority of victim services are provided by Haitian NGOs such as Foyer l'Escale, Centre d'Action pour le Developpement and Organisation des Jeunes Filles en Action that provide accommodation, educational and psycho-social services to victims.[101] Additionally, the IOM has been cooperating with local NGOs and the Haitian Ministry of Social Affairs, the Institute for Social Welfare and Research or the Brigade for the Protection of Minors of the Haitian national police, to tackle human trafficking.[101]
Prevention
The government has made efforts to prevent and reduce human trafficking. In June 2012, the IBESR (Institut du BienEtre Social et de Recherches) launched a human trafficking hotline and conducted a campaign to raise public awareness about child labor, child trafficking, and child sexual abuse.
Contributing factors
The 2013 Trafficking in Persons Report identified several individual and structural factors that contribute to the persistence of human trafficking to, through, and out of Haiti, as well as throughout Latin America and the Caribbean.[104]
The Haitians at gravest risk of victimization by human traffickers are its poorest people, particularly children.
Human trafficking along the Haitian-Dominican border persists because both sending and receiving countries have a huge economic stake in continuing the stream of undocumented migration, which directly leads to trafficking.[129] Trafficking is a profitable business[140] for traffickers both in Haiti and the Dominican Republic. As long as large economic and social disparities such as poverty, social exclusion, environmental crises, and political instability exist between the two countries, the trade will continue.[129]
There are also structural factors outside of the individual that explain the persistence of
See also
- Human rights in Haiti
- Women's rights in Haiti
- Dominican Republic–Haiti relations
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