History of slavery
Part of a series on |
Slavery |
---|
The history of slavery spans many
Slavery has been found in some
It became less common throughout Europe during the
Beginning in the
In modern times
Prehistoric and ancient slavery
Evidence of slavery predates written records; the practice has existed in many cultures[16][8] and can be traced back 11,000 years ago due to the conditions created by the invention of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution.[17][8][7] Economic surpluses and high population densities were conditions that made mass slavery viable.[18][19]
Slavery occurred in civilizations including
-
C. 1480 BC, fugitive-slave treaty between Idrimi of Alakakh (nowTell Atchana) and Pillia of Kizzuwatna(now Cilicia).
-
Ancient Egyptian mummy soles depicting two captive foreigners, a Syrian (left) and a Nubian (right),[25] between 332 BC and 395 c.e. (Ptolemaic or Roman period).
-
Slaves in chains during the period of Roman rule at Smyrna (present-day İzmir), 200 AD.
Africa
Writing in 1984, French historian Fernand Braudel noted that slavery had been endemic in Africa and part of the structure of everyday life throughout the 15th to the 18th century. "Slavery came in different guises in different societies: there were court slaves, slaves incorporated into princely armies, domestic and household slaves, slaves working on the land, in industry, as couriers and intermediaries, even as traders".[26] During the 16th century, Europe began to outpace the Arab world in the export traffic, with its trafficking of slaves from Africa to the Americas.[citation needed] The Dutch imported slaves from Asia into their colony at the Cape of Good Hope (now Cape Town) in the 17th century.[citation needed] In 1807 Britain (which already held a small coastal territory, intended for the resettlement of formerly slaves, in Freetown, Sierra Leone) made the slave trade within its empire illegal with the Slave Trade Act 1807, and worked to extend the prohibition to other territory,[27]: 42 as did the United States in 1808.[28]
In
Slavery in Ethiopia persisted until 1942. The Anti-Slavery Society estimated that there were 2,000,000 slaves in the early 1930s, out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million.[35] It was finally abolished by order of emperor Haile Selassie on 26 August 1942.[36]
When British rule was first imposed on the
Writing in 1998 about the extent of trade coming through and from Africa, the Congolese journalist Elikia M'bokolo wrote "The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth)." He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"[39]
Sub-Saharan Africa
Zanzibar was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, during the Indian Ocean slave trade and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century, as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.[41]
Prior to the 16th century, the bulk of slaves exported from Africa were shipped from East Africa to the
The increased presence of European rivals along the East coast led Arab traders to concentrate on the overland slave caravan routes across the
European involvement in the East African trade of enslaved people began when Portugal established Estado da Índia in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s, c. 200 enslaved people were exported from Portuguese Mozambique annually and similar figures has been estimated for enslaved people brought from Asia to the Philippines during the Iberian Union (1580–1640).[47][48][citation needed]
The
The
While talking about the trade of slaves in East Africa in his journals, David Livingstone said
To overdraw its evil is a simple impossibility.[52]
While travelling in the African Great Lakes Region in 1866, Livingstone described a trail of slaves:
19th June 1866 – We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead, the people of the country explained that she had been unable to keep up with the other slaves in a gang, and her master had determined that she should not become anyone's property if she recovered.
26th June. – ...We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path: a group of men stood about a hundred yards off on one side, and another of the women on the other side, looking on; they said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer.
27th June 1866 – To-day we came upon a man dead from starvation, as he was very thin. One of our men wandered and found many slaves with slave-sticks on, abandoned by their masters from want of food; they were too weak to be able to speak or say where they had come from; some were quite young.[53]
The strangest disease I have seen in this country seems really to be broken-heartedness, and it attacks free men who have been captured and made slaves... Twenty one were unchained, as now safe; however all ran away at once; but eight with many others still in chains, died in three days after the crossing. They described their only pain in the heart, and placed the hand correctly on the spot, though many think the organ stands high up in the breast-bone.[54]
African participation in the slave trade
African states played a key role in the trade of slaves, and slavery was a common practice among
Slavery already existed in
The kings of
In the 1840s, King Gezo of Dahomey said:[13][63]
"The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealth...the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery."
In 1807 the
"We think this trade must go on. That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself."
Joseph Miller states that African buyers would prefer males, but in reality, women and children would be more easily captured as men fled. Those captured would be sold for various reasons such as food, debts, or servitude. Once captured, the journey to the coast killed many and weakened others. Disease engulfed many, and insufficient food damaged those who made it to the coasts. Scurvy was common, and was often referred to as mal de Luanda ("Luanda sickness," after the port in Angola).[65] The assumption for those who died on the journey died from malnutrition. As food was limited, water may have been just as bad. Dysentery was widespread and poor sanitary conditions at ports did not help. Since supplies were poor, slaves were not equipped with the best clothing, meaning they were even more exposed to diseases.[65]
On top of the fear of disease, people were afraid of why they were being captured. The popular assumption was that Europeans were cannibals. Stories and rumours spread that whites captured Africans to eat them.[65] Olaudah Equiano accounts his experience about the sorrow slaves encountered at the ports. He talks about his first moment on a slave ship and asked if he was going to be eaten.[66] Yet, the worst for slaves has only begun, and the journey on the water proved to be more harrowing. For every 100 Africans captured, only 64 would reach the coast, and only about 50 would reach the New World.[65]
Others believe that slavers had a vested interest in capturing rather than killing, and in keeping their captives alive; and that this coupled with the disproportionate removal of males and the introduction of new crops from the Americas (cassava, maize) would have limited general population decline to particular regions of western Africa around 1760–1810, and in Mozambique and neighbouring areas half a century later. There has also been speculation that within Africa, females were most often captured as brides, with their male protectors being a "bycatch" who would have been killed if there had not been an export market for them.
British explorer Mungo Park encountered a group of slaves when traveling through Mandinka country:
They were all very inquisitive, but they viewed me at first with looks of horror, and repeatedly asked if my countrymen were cannibals. They were very desirous to know what became of the slaves after they had crossed the salt water. I told them that they were employed in cultivation the land; but they would not believe me ... A deeply-rooted idea that the whites purchase negroes for the purpose of devouring them, or of selling them to others that they may be devoured hereafter, naturally makes the slaves contemplate a journey towards the coast with great terror, insomuch that the slatees are forced to keep them constantly in irons, and watch them very closely, to prevent their escape.[67]
During the period from the late 19th century and early 20th century, demand for the labour-intensive harvesting of rubber drove frontier expansion and
Africans on ships
Surviving the voyage was the main struggle. Close quarters meant everyone was infected by any diseases that spread, including the crew. Death was so common that ships were called tumbeiros, or floating tombs.[69] What shocked Africans the most was how death was handled in the ships. Smallwood says the traditions for an African death were delicate and community-based. On ships, bodies would be thrown into the sea. Because the sea represented bad omens, bodies in the sea represented a form of purgatory and the ship a form of hell. Any Africans who made the journey would have survived extreme disease and malnutrition, as well as trauma from being on the open ocean and the death of their friends.[69]
North Africa
In
Modern times
The trading of children has been reported in modern Nigeria and Benin. In parts of Ghana, a family may be punished for an offense by having to turn over a virgin female to serve as a sex slave within the offended family. In this instance, the woman does not gain the title or status of "wife". In parts of Ghana, Togo, and Benin, shrine slavery persists, despite being illegal in Ghana since 1998. In this system of ritual servitude, sometimes called trokosi (in Ghana) or voodoosi in Togo and Benin, young virgin girls are given as slaves to traditional shrines and are used sexually by the priests in addition to providing free labor for the shrine.[citation needed]
An article in the
During the
During the
In Niger, slavery is also a current phenomenon. A Nigerien study has found that more than 800,000 people are enslaved, almost 8% of the population.[79][80][81] Niger installed an anti-slavery provision in 2003.[82][83] In a landmark ruling in 2008, the ECOWAS Community Court of Justice declared that the Republic of Niger failed to protect Hadijatou Mani Koraou from slavery, and awarded Mani CFA 10,000,000 (approximately US$20,000) in reparations.[84]
Sexual slavery and
Many
Evidence emerged in the late 1990s of systematic slavery in
According to the U.S. State Department, more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa farms alone in Ivory Coast in "the worst forms of child labour" in 2002.[90]
On the night of 14–15 April 2014, a group of militants attacked the Government Girls Secondary School in Chibok, Nigeria. They broke into the school, pretending to be guards,[91] telling the girls to get out and come with them.[92] A large number of students were taken away in trucks, possibly into the Konduga area of the Sambisa Forest where Boko Haram were known to have fortified camps.[92] Houses in Chibok were also burned down in the incident.[93] According to police, approximately 276 children were taken in the attack, of whom 53 had escaped as of 2 May.[94] Other reports said that 329 girls were kidnapped, 53 had escaped and 276 were still missing.[95][96][97] The students have been forced to convert to Islam[98] and into marriage with members of Boko Haram, with a reputed "bride price" of ₦2,000 each ($12.50/£7.50).[99][100] Many of the students were taken to the neighbouring countries of Chad and Cameroon, with sightings reported of the students crossing borders with the militants, and sightings of the students by villagers living in the Sambisa Forest, which is considered a refuge for Boko Haram.[100][101]
On 5 May 2014 a video in which
Libyan slave trade
During the
Many child migrants also suffer from abuse and
Americas
To participate in the slave trade in
Among indigenous peoples
In
Other slave-owning societies and tribes of the New World were, for example, the
Brazil
Slavery was a mainstay of the
From
Resistance and abolition
slaves that escaped formed
Jean-Baptiste Debret, a French painter who was active in Brazil in the first decades of the 19th century, started out with painting portraits of members of the Brazilian Imperial family, but soon became concerned with the slavery of both blacks and indigenous inhabitants. His paintings on the subject (two appear on this page) helped bring attention to the subject in both Europe and Brazil itself.
The Clapham Sect, a group of evangelical reformers, campaigned during much of the 19th century for Britain to use its influence and power to stop the traffic of slaves to Brazil. Besides moral qualms, the low cost of slave-produced Brazilian sugar meant that the British West Indies were unable to match the market prices of Brazilian sugar, and each Briton was consuming 16 pounds (7 kg) of sugar a year by the 19th century. This combination led to intensive pressure from the British government for Brazil to end this practice, which it did by steps over several decades.[126]
First, foreign trade of slaves was banned in 1850. Then, in 1871, the sons of the slaves were freed. In 1885, slaves aged over 60 years were freed. The Paraguayan War contributed to ending slavery as many slaves enlisted in exchange for freedom. In Colonial Brazil, slavery was more a social than a racial condition[citation needed]. Some of the greatest figures of the time, like the writer Machado de Assis and the engineer André Rebouças had black ancestry.
Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought) in the cotton-growing northeast led to major turmoil, starvation, poverty and internal migration. As wealthy plantation holders rushed to sell their slaves south, popular resistance and resentment grew, inspiring numerous emancipation societies. They succeeded in banning slavery altogether in the province of Ceará by 1884.[127] Slavery was legally ended nationwide on 13 May by the Lei Áurea ("Golden Law") of 1888. It was an institution in decadence at these times, as since the 1880s the country had begun to use European immigrant labor instead. Brazil was the last nation in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery.[128]
British and French Caribbean
Slavery was commonly used in the parts of the
England had multiple sugar colonies in the Caribbean, especially Jamaica, Barbados, Nevis, and Antigua, which provided a steady flow of sugar sales; forced labor of slaves produced the sugar.[130] By the 1700s, there were more slaves in Barbados than in all the English colonies on the mainland combined. Since Barbados did not have many mountains, English planters were able to clear land for sugarcane. Indentured servants were initially sent to Barbados to work in the sugar fields. These indentured servants were treated so poorly that future indentured servants stopped going to Barbados, and there were not enough people to work the fields. This is when the British started bringing in enslaved Africans. For the English planters in Barbados, reliance on enslaved labor was necessary for them to be able to profit from production of cane-origin sugar for the growing market for sugar in Europe and other markets.[citation needed]
In the Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714), the various European powers negotiating the terms of the treaty also discussed colonial issues as well.[131] Of special importance in the negotiations at Utrecht was the successful negotiation between the British and French delegations for Britain to obtain a thirty-year monopoly on the right to sell slaves in Spanish America, called the Asiento de Negros. Queen Anne also allowed her North American colonies like Virginia to make laws that promoted the importation of slaves. Anne had secretly negotiated with France to get its approval regarding the Asiento.[132] In 1712, she delivered a speech which included a public announcement of her success in taking the Asiento away from France; many London merchants celebrated her economic coup.[133] Most of the trade of slaves involved sales to Spanish colonies in the Caribbean, and to Mexico, as well as sales to European colonies in the Caribbean and in North America.[134] Historian Vinita Ricks says the agreement allotted Queen Anne "22.5% (and King Philip V, of Spain 28%) of all profits collected for the Asiento monopoly. Ricks concludes that the Queen's "connection to slave trade revenue meant that she was no longer a neutral observer. She had a vested interest in what happened on slave ships."[135]
By 1778, the French were importing approximately 13,000 Africans for enslavement yearly to the French West Indies.[136]
To regularise slavery, in 1685
Whitehall in England announced in 1833 that slaves in British colonies would be completely freed by 1838. In the meantime, the government told slaves they had to remain on their plantations and would have the status of "apprentices" for the next six years.
In
After Great Britain abolished slavery, it began to pressure other nations to do the same. France, too, abolished slavery. By then Saint-Domingue had already won its independence and formed the independent Republic of Haiti, though France still controlled Guadeloupe, Martinique and a few smaller islands.
Canada
Slavery in Canada was practised by First Nations and continued during the European colonization of Canada.[141] It is estimated that there were
4,200 slaves in the French colony of Canada and later British North America between 1671 and 1831.[142] Two-thirds of these were of indigenous ancestry
(typically called
The practice of slavery in
Latin America
During the period from the late 19th century and early 20th century, demand for the labor-intensive harvesting of rubber drove frontier expansion and slavery in Latin America and elsewhere. Indigenous peoples were enslaved as part of the
United States
Early events
In late August 1619, the frigate
Historians are undecided if the legal practice of slavery began in the colony because at least some of them had the status of indentured servant. Alden T. Vaughn says most agree that both black slaves and indentured servants existed by 1640.[154]
Only a small fraction of the enslaved Africans brought to the New World came to British North America, perhaps as little as 5% of the total. The vast majority of slaves were sent to the Caribbean sugar colonies, Brazil, or Spanish America.
By the 1680s, with the consolidation of England's Royal African Company, enslaved Africans were arriving in English colonies in larger numbers, and the institution continued to be protected by the British government. Colonists now began purchasing slaves in larger numbers.
Slavery in American colonial law
- 1640: Virginia courts sentence John Punch to lifetime slavery, marking the earliest legal sanctioning of slavery in English colonies.[155]
- 1641: Massachusetts legalizes slavery.[156]
- 1650: Connecticut legalizes slavery.
- 1652: Rhode Island bans the enslavement or forced servitude of any white or negro for more than ten years or beyond the age of 24.[157][158]
- 1654: Virginia sanctions "the right of Negros to own slaves of their own race" after African Anthony Johnson, former indentured servant, sued to have fellow African John Casor declared not an indentured servant but "slave for life."[159]
- 1661: Virginia officially recognizes slavery by statute.
- 1662: A Virginia statute declares that children born would have the same status as their mother.
- 1663: Maryland legalizes slavery.
- 1664: Slavery is legalized in New York and New Jersey.[160]
- 1670: Carolina (later, South Carolina and North Carolina) is founded mainly by planters from the overpopulated British sugar island colony of Barbados, who brought relatively large numbers of African slaves from that island.[161]
- 1676: Rhode Island bans the enslavement of Native Americans.[162]
Development of slavery
The shift from indentured servants to enslaved African was prompted by a dwindling class of former servants who had worked through the terms of their indentures and thus became competitors to their former masters. These newly freed servants were rarely able to support themselves comfortably, and the tobacco industry was increasingly dominated by large planters. This caused domestic unrest culminating in Bacon's Rebellion. Eventually, chattel slavery became the norm in regions dominated by plantations.
The
Several local
Early United States law
Within the British Empire, the Massachusetts courts began to follow England when, in 1772, England became the first country in the world to outlaw the slave trade within its borders (see Somerset v Stewart) followed by the Knight v. Wedderburn decision in Scotland in 1778. Between 1764 and 1774, seventeen slaves appeared in Massachusetts courts to sue their owners for freedom.[166] In 1766, John Adams' colleague Benjamin Kent won the first trial in the present-day United States to free an slave (Slew vs. Whipple).[167][168][169][170][171][172]
The
Despite the actions of abolitionists, free blacks were subject to
After the passage of the
American Civil War
The enslaved population in the United States stood at four million.
By 1862 most northern leaders realized that the mainstay of Southern secession, slavery, had to be attacked head-on. All the border states rejected President Lincoln's proposal for compensated emancipation. However, by 1865 all had begun the abolition of slavery, except Kentucky and Delaware. The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order issued by Lincoln on 1 January 1863. In a single stroke, it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of 3 million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave" to "free." It had the practical effect that as soon as an slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, by running away or through advances of the Union Army, the slave became legally and actually free. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their human property as far as possible out of reach of the Union Army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all of the designated slaves. The owners were never compensated.[181] About 186,000 free blacks and newly freed people fought for the Union in the Army and Navy, thereby validating their claims to full citizenship.[182]
The severe dislocations of war and Reconstruction had a severe negative impact on the black population, with a large amount of sickness and death.
Slavery was never reestablished, but after President
Asia
Slavery has existed all throughout Asia, and forms of slavery still exist today. In the ancient
Slavery in the Middle East first developed out of the
Under
Byzantine Empire
Slavery played a notable role in the economy of the Byzantine Empire. Many slaves were sourced from wars within the Mediterranean and Europe while others were sourced from trading with Vikings visiting the empire. Slavery's role in the economy and the power of slave owners slowly diminished while laws gradually improved the rights of slaves.[202][203][204] Under the influence of Christianity, views of slavery shifted leading to slaves gaining more rights and independence, and although slavery became rare and was seen as evil by many citizens it was still legal.[205][206]
During the Arab–Byzantine wars many prisoners of war were ransomed into slavery while others took part in Arab–Byzantine prisoner exchanges. Exchanges of prisoners became a regular feature of the relations between the Byzantine Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate.[207][208][209]
After the fall of the Byzantine empire thousands of Byzantine citizens were enslaved, with 30,000–50,000 citizens being enslaved by the Ottoman Empire after the Fall of Constantinople.[210][211]
Ottoman Empire
Slavery was a legal and important part of the
A member of the Ottoman slave class, called a
Ottomans practiced
During the various 18th and 19th century
According to Ronald Segal, the male:female gender ratio in the Atlantic slave trade was 2:1, whereas in Islamic lands the ratio was 1:2. Another difference between the two was, he argues, that slavery in the west had a racial component, whereas the Qur'an explicitly condemned racism. This, in Segal's view, eased assimilation of freed slaves into society.[222] Men would often take their female slaves as concubines; in fact, most Ottoman sultans were sons of such concubines.[222]
Ancient history
Ancient India
Scholars differ as to whether or not slaves and the institution of slavery existed in
The Indians do not even use aliens as slaves, much less a countryman of their own.
— The Indika of Arrian[225]
Ancient China
- Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) Men sentenced to castration became eunuch slaves of the Qin dynasty state and as a result they were made to do forced labor, on projects like the Terracotta Army.[226] The Qin government confiscated the property and enslaved the families of those who received castration as a punishment for rape.[227]
- Slaves were deprived of their rights and connections to their families.[228]
- Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) One of Emperor Gao's first acts was to set free from slavery agricultural workers who were enslaved during the Warring States period, although domestic servants retained their status.
- Men punished with castration during the Han dynasty were also used as slave labor.[229]
- Deriving from earlier Legalist laws, the Han dynasty set in place rules that the property of and families of criminals doing three years of hard labor or sentenced to castration were to have their families seized and kept as property by the government.[230]
During the millennium long
The Tang dynasty purchased Western slaves from the Radhanite Jews.[233] Tang Chinese soldiers and pirates enslaved Koreans, Turks, Persians, Indonesians, and people from Inner Mongolia, Central Asia, and northern India.[234][235][236][237] The greatest source of slaves came from southern tribes, including Thais and aboriginals from the southern provinces of Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Guizhou. Malays, Khmers, Indians, and black Africans were also purchased as slaves in the Tang dynasty.[238] Slavery was prevalent until the late 19th century and early 20th century China.[239] All forms of slavery have been illegal in China since 1910.[240]
Postclassical history
Indian subcontinent
The
Andre Wink summarizes the slavery in 8th and 9th century India as follows,
(During the invasion of Muhammad al-Qasim), invariably numerous women and children were enslaved. The sources insist that now, in dutiful conformity to religious law, 'the one-fifth of the slaves and spoils' were set apart for the caliph's treasury and despatched to Iraq and Syria. The remainder was scattered among the army of Islam. At Rūr, a random 60,000 captives reduced to slavery. At Brahamanabad 30,000 slaves were allegedly taken. At Multan 6,000. Slave raids continued to be made throughout the late Umayyad period in Sindh, but also much further into Hind, as far as Ujjain and Malwa. The Abbasid governors raided Punjab, where many prisoners and slaves were taken.
— Al Hind, André Wink[247]
In the early 11th century Tarikh al-Yamini, the Arab historian
Slavery and empire-formation tied in particularly well with iqta and it is within this context of Islamic expansion that elite slavery was later commonly found. It became the predominant system in North India in the thirteenth century and retained considerable importance in the fourteenth century. Slavery was still vigorous in fifteenth-century Bengal, while after that date it shifted to the Deccan where it persisted until the seventeenth century. It remained present to a minor extent in the Mughal provinces throughout the seventeenth century and had a notable revival under the Afghans in North India again in the eighteenth century.
— Al Hind, André Wink[251]
The
The first
During the rule of Shah Jahan, many peasants were compelled to sell their women and children into slavery to meet the land revenue demand.[259] Slavery was officially abolished in British India by the Indian Slavery Act, 1843. However, in modern India, Pakistan and Nepal, there are millions of bonded laborers, who work as slaves to pay off debts.[260][261][262]
Modern history
Iran
Reginald Dyer, recalling operations against tribes in Iranian Baluchistan in 1916, stated in a 1921 memoir that the local Balochi tribes would regularly carry out raids against travellers and small towns. During these raids, women and children would often be abducted to become slaves, and would be sold for prices varying based on quality, age and looks. He stated that the average price for a young woman was 300 rupees, and the average price for a small child 25 rupees. The slaves, it was noted, were often half starved.[263]
Japan
Slavery in Japan was, for most of its history, indigenous, since the export and import of slaves was restricted by Japan being a group of islands. In late-16th-century Japan, slavery was officially banned; but forms of contract and indentured labor persisted alongside the period penal codes' forced labor. During the
Korea
In Korea, slavery was officially abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894. During the Joseon period, in times of poor harvest and famine, many peasants voluntarily sold themselves into the nobi system in order to survive.[267]
Southeast Asia
In Southeast Asia, there was a large slave class in
Slavery in
Islamic State slave trade
According to media reports from late 2014, the
IS announced the revival of slavery as an institution.[286] In 2015 the official slave prices set by IS were following:[287][288]
- Children aged 1 to 9 were sold for 200,000 dinars ($169).
- Women and children 10 to 20 years sold for 150,000 dinars ($127).
- Women 20 to 30 years old for 100,000 dinar ($85).
- Women 30 to 40 years old are 75,000 dinar ($63).
- Women 40 to 50 years old for 50,000 dinar ($42).
However some slaves have been sold for as little as a pack of cigarettes.[289] Sex slaves were sold to Saudi Arabia, other Persian Gulf states and Turkey.[290]
Europe
Ancient history
Ancient Greece
Records of
During the 8th and the 7th centuries BC, in the course of the two
Rome
Romans inherited the institution of slavery from the
Other European tribes
Various tribes of Europe are recorded by Roman sources as owning slaves.[296] Strabo records slaves as an export commodity from Britannia,[297] From Llyn Cerrig Bach in Anglesey, an iron gang chain dated to 100 BCE-50 CE was found, over 3 metres long with neck-rings for five captives.[298]
Post-classical history
The chaos of invasion and frequent warfare also resulted in victorious parties taking slaves throughout Europe in the
The
In central Europe, specifically the Frankish/German/Holy Roman Empire of Charlemagne, raids and wars to the east generated a steady supply of slaves from the Slavic captives of these regions. Because of high demand for slaves in the wealthy Muslim empires of Northern Africa, Spain, and the Near East, especially for slaves of European descent, a market for these slaves rapidly emerged. So lucrative was this market that it spawned an economic boom in central and western Europe, today known as the Carolingian Renaissance.[301][302][303] This boom period for slaves stretched from the early Muslim conquests to the High Middle Ages but declined in the later Middle Ages as the Islamic Golden Age waned.
Ottoman Empire
The
Similarly, Christians sold
Eastern Europe
Poland banned slavery in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588; the institution was replaced by the second enserfment. Slavery remained a minor institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter the Great converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier, in 1679.[309]
British Isles
Capture in war, voluntary servitude and
France
In the early Middle Ages, the city of
Barbary pirates and Maltese corsairs
Genoa and Venice
In the late
From the 1440s into the 18th century, Europeans from Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, and England were sold into slavery by North Africans. In 1575, the Tatars captured over 35,000 Ukrainians; a 1676 raid took almost 40,000. About 60,000 Ukrainians were captured in 1688; some were ransomed, but most were sold into slavery.[317][318] Some 150,000–200,000 of the Roma people were enslaved over five centuries in Romania until abolition in 1864 (see Slavery in Romania).[319]
Mongols
The
Slave commerce during the Late Middle Ages was mainly in the hands of Venetian and Genoese merchants and cartels, who were involved in the slave trade with the Golden Horde.[324] In 1382 the Golden Horde under Khan Tokhtamysh sacked Moscow, burning the city and carrying off thousands of inhabitants as slaves. Between 1414 and 1423, some 10,000 eastern European slaves were sold in Venice.[325] Genoese merchants organized the slave trade from the Crimea to Mamluk Egypt. For years, the Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan routinely made raids on Russian principalities for slaves and to plunder towns. Russian chronicles record about 40 raids by Kazan Khans on the Russian territories in the first half of the 16th century.[326]
In 1441
Moscow was repeatedly a target.[329] In 1521, the combined forces of Crimean Khan Mehmed Giray and his Kazan allies attacked the city and captured thousands of slaves.[330] In 1571, the Crimean Tatars attacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin and taking thousands of captives as slaves.[331] In Crimea, about 75% of the population consisted of slaves.[332]
In the
Early Modern history
Slavery in the
Portugal
The 15th-century Portuguese exploration of the African coast is commonly regarded as the harbinger of European colonialism. In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull Dum Diversas, granting Afonso V of Portugal the right to reduce any "Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers" to hereditary slavery which legitimized slave trade under Catholic beliefs of that time. This approval of slavery was reaffirmed and extended in his Romanus Pontifex bull of 1455. These papal bulls came to serve as a justification for the subsequent era of the slave trade and European colonialism, although for a short period as in 1462 Pius II declared slavery to be "a great crime".[343] Unlike Portugal, Protestant nations did not use the papal bull as a justification for their involvement in the slave trade. The position of the church was to condemn the slavery of Christians, but slavery was regarded as an old established and necessary institution which supplied Europe with the necessary workforce. In the 16th century, African slaves had replaced almost all other ethnicities and religious enslaved groups in Europe.[344] Within the Portuguese territory of Brazil, and even beyond its original borders, the enslavement of Native Americans was carried out by the Bandeirantes.
Among many other European slave markets,
In the second half of the 16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on slave trade and the focus of European trade in African slaves shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas—in the case of Portugal, especially Brazil.[347] In the 15th century, one-third of the slaves were resold to the African market in exchange of gold.[344]
Importation of black slaves was prohibited in mainland Portugal and Portuguese India in 1761, but slavery continued in Portuguese overseas colonies.[350] At the same time, was stimulated the trade of black slaves ("the pieces", in the terms of that time) to Brazil and two companies were founded, with the support and direct involvement of the Marquis of Pombal - the Company of Grão-Pará and Maranhão and the General Company of Pernambuco and Paraíba - whose main activity was precisely the trafficking of slaves, mostly black Africans, to Brazilian lands.[351][350]
Slavery was finally abolished in all Portuguese colonies in 1869.
Spain
The
However, in the Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico, where sugarcane production was highly profitable based on slave labor, African slavery persisted until 1873 in Puerto Rico "with provisions for periods of apprenticeship",[355] and 1886 in Cuba.[356]
Netherlands
Although slavery was illegal inside the
The Offra trading post soon became the most important Dutch office on the Slave Coast. According to a 1670 report, annually 2,500 to 3,000 slaves were transported from Offra to the Americas. These numbers were only feasible in times of peace, however, and dwindled in time of conflict. From 1688 onward, the struggle between the
Barbary corsairs
From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates. 160 English ships were captured by Algerians between 1677 and 1680.
Ireland, despite its northern position, was not immune from attacks by the corsairs. In June 1631 Janszoon, with pirates from Algiers and armed troops of the Ottoman Empire, stormed ashore at the little harbor village of Baltimore, County Cork. They captured almost all the villagers and took them away to a life of slavery in North Africa.[370] The prisoners were destined for a variety of fates—some lived out their days chained to the oars as galley slaves, while others would spend long years in the scented seclusion of the harem or within the walls of the sultan's palace. Only two of them ever saw Ireland again.
The
In order to neutralise this objection and further the anti-slavery campaign, in 1816 Britain sent
The Barbary states had difficulty securing uniform compliance with a total prohibition of slave-raiding, as this had been traditionally of central importance to the North African economy. Slavers continued to take captives by preying on less well-protected peoples. Algiers subsequently renewed its slave-raiding, though on a smaller scale.[370] Europeans at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 discussed possible retaliation. In 1820 a British fleet under Admiral Sir Harry Neal bombarded Algiers. Corsair activity based in Algiers did not entirely cease until France conquered the state in 1830. [370]
Crimean Khanate
The Crimeans frequently mounted raids into the
For a long time, until the early 18th century, the
Author and historian Brian Glyn Williams writes:
Fisher estimates that in the sixteenth century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost around 20,000 individuals a year and that from 1474 to 1694, as many as a million Commonwealth citizens were carried off into Crimean slavery.[374]
Early modern sources are full of descriptions of sufferings of Christian slaves captured by the Crimean Tatars in the course of their raids:
It seems that the position and everyday conditions of a slave depended largely on his/her owner. Some slaves indeed could spend the rest of their days doing exhausting labor: as the Crimean vizir (minister) Sefer Gazi Aga mentions in one of his letters, the slaves were often "a plough and a scythe" of their owners. Most terrible, perhaps, was the fate of those who became galley-slaves, whose sufferings were poeticized in many Ukrainian dumas (songs). ... Both female and male slaves were often used for sexual purposes.[373]
British slave trade
Britain played a prominent role in the
A little-known incident in the career of
After 1833, the freed African slaves declined employment in the cane fields. This led to the importation of indentured labour again – mainly from India, and also China.
In 1811, Arthur William Hodge was executed for the murder of a slave in the British West Indies. He was not, however, as some[who?] have claimed, the first white person to have been lawfully executed for the murder of a slave.[382][383]
Late Modern history
Germany
During
Allied powers
As agreed by the Allies at the
Soviet Union
The
During the period of
A total of around 14 million prisoners passed through the Gulag labor camps.[391]
Oceania
In the first half of the 19th century, small-scale slave raids took place across
Hawaii
Ancient Hawaii was a caste society. People were born into specific social classes. Kauwa were those of the outcast or slave class. They are believed to have been war captives or their descendants. Marriage between higher castes and the kauwa was strictly forbidden. The kauwa worked for the chiefs and were often used as human sacrifices at the luakini heiau. (They were not the only sacrifices; law-breakers of all castes or defeated political opponents were also acceptable as victims.)[392]
The
New Zealand
Before the arrival of
As far as it is possible to tell, slavery seems to have increased in the early-19th century with increased numbers of prisoners being taken by Māori military leaders (such as
Slavery was outlawed in 1840 via the Treaty of Waitangi, although it did not end completely until government was effectively extended over the whole of the country with the defeat of the King movement in the Wars of the mid-1860s.
Chatham Islands
One group of
Two Taranaki tribes, Ngati Tama and Ngati Mutunga, displaced by the Musket Wars, carried out a carefully planned invasion of the Chatham Islands, 800 km east of Christchurch, in 1835. About 15% of the Polynesian Moriori natives who had migrated to the islands at about 1500 CE were killed, with many women being tortured to death. The remaining population was enslaved for the purpose of growing food, especially potatoes. The Moriori were treated in an inhumane and degrading manner for many years. Their culture was banned and they were forbidden to marry.[401]
Some 300 Moriori men, women and children were massacred and the remaining 1,200 to 1,300 survivors were enslaved.[402][403]
Some Māori took Moriori partners. The state of enslavement of Moriori lasted until the 1860s although it had been discouraged by
Rapa Nui / Easter Island
The isolated island of
Abolitionist movements
Slavery has existed, in one form or another, throughout the whole of human history. So, too, have movements to free large or distinct groups of slaves. However, abolitionism should be distinguished from efforts to help a particular group of slaves, or to restrict one practice, such as the slave trade.
Drescher (2009) provides a model for the history of the abolition of slavery, emphasizing its origins in Western Europe. Around the year 1500, slavery had virtually died out in Western Europe, but was a normal phenomenon practically everywhere else. The imperial powers – the British, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch empires, and a few others – built worldwide empires based primarily on plantation agriculture using slaves imported from Africa. However, the powers took care to minimize the presence of slavery in their homelands. In 1807 Britain and soon after, the United States also, both criminalized the international slave trade. The Royal Navy was increasingly effective in intercepting slave ships, freeing the captives and taking the crew for trial in courts.
Although there were numerous slave revolts in the Caribbean, the only successful uprising came in the French colony of Haiti in the 1790s, where the slaves rose up, killed the
The continuing profitability of slave-based plantations and the threats of race war slowed the development of abolition movements during the first half of the 19th century. These movements were strongest in Britain, and after 1840 in the United States. The Northern states of the United States abolished slavery, partly in response to the United States Declaration of Independence, between 1777 and 1804. Britain ended slavery in its empire in the 1830s. However, the plantation economies of the southern United States, based on cotton, and those in Brazil and Cuba, based on sugar, expanded and grew even more profitable. The bloody American Civil War ended slavery in the United States in 1865. The system ended in Cuba and Brazil in the 1880s because it was no longer profitable for the owners. Slavery continued to exist in Africa, where Arab slave traders raided black areas for new captives to be sold in the system. European colonial rule and diplomatic pressure slowly put an end to the trade, and eventually to the practice of slavery itself.[405]
Britain
In 1772, the
Following the work of campaigners in the United Kingdom, such as William Wilberforce, Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville and Thomas Clarkson, who founded the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade (Abolition Society) in May 1787, the Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade was passed by Parliament on 25 March 1807, coming into effect the following year. The act imposed a fine of £100 for every slave found aboard a British ship. The intention was to outlaw entirely the Atlantic slave trade within the whole British Empire.[citation needed]
The significance of the abolition of the British slave trade lay in the number of people hitherto sold and carried by British slave vessels. Britain shipped 2,532,300 Africans across the Atlantic, equalling 41% of the total transport of 6,132,900 individuals. This made the British empire the biggest slave-trade contributor in the world due to the magnitude of the empire, which made the abolition act all the more damaging to the global trade of slaves.[408] Britain used its diplomatic influence to press other nations into treaties to ban their slave trade and to give the Royal Navy the right to interdict slave ships sailing under their national flag.[409]
The
The
Domestic slavery practised by the educated African coastal elites (as well as interior traditional rulers) in Sierra Leone was abolished in 1928. A study found practices of domestic slavery still widespread in rural areas in the 1970s.[413][414]
The
France
There were slaves in
Abolition
In 1793, influenced by the French
Napoleon restores slavery
Napoleon and slavery
In 1794 slavery was abolished in the French Empire. After seizing Lower Egypt in 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte issued a proclamation in Arabic, declaring all men to be free and equal. However, the French bought males as soldiers and females as concubines. Napoleon personally opposed the abolition and restored colonial slavery in 1802, a year after the capitulation of his troops in Egypt.[418]
Napoleon decreed the abolition of the slave trade upon his returning from
Victor Schœlcher and the 1848 abolition
Slavery in the French colonies was finally abolished in 1848, three months after the beginning of the revolution against the July Monarchy. It was in large part the result of the tireless 18-year campaign of Victor Schœlcher. On 3 March 1848, he had been appointed under-secretary of the navy, and caused a decree to be issued by the provisional government which acknowledged the principle of the enfranchisement of the slaves through the French possessions. He also wrote the decree of 27 April 1848 in which the French government announced that slavery was abolished in all of its colonies.[citation needed]
United States
In 1688, four German Quakers in
The American Colonization Society, the primary vehicle for returning black Americans to greater freedom in Africa, established the colony of Liberia in 1821–23, on the premise that former American slaves would have greater freedom and equality there.[420] Various state colonization societies also had African colonies which were later merged with Liberia, including the Republic of Maryland, Mississippi-in-Africa, and Kentucky in Africa. These societies assisted in the movement of thousands of African Americans to Liberia, with ACS founder Henry Clay stating; "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off". Abraham Lincoln, an enthusiastic supporter of Clay, adopted his position on returning the blacks to their own land.[421]
Slaves in the United States who escaped ownership would often make their way to the Northern United States and Canada via the "Underground Railroad". The more famous of the African American abolitionists include former slaves Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth and Frederick Douglass. Many more people who opposed slavery and worked for abolition were northern whites, such as William Lloyd Garrison and John Brown. Slavery was legally abolished in 1865 by the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
While abolitionists agreed on the evils of slavery, there were differing opinions on what should happen after African Americans were freed. By the time of Emancipation, African-Americans were now native to the United States and did not want to leave. Most believed that their labor had made the land theirs as well as that of the whites.[422]
Congress of Vienna
The Declaration of the Powers, on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, of 8 February 1815 (Which also formed
Twentieth century
The
As of November 2003, 104 nations had ratified the treaty. However, illegal forced labour involves millions of people in the 21st century, 43% for sexual exploitation and 32% for economic exploitation.[424]
In May 2004, the 22 members of the Arab League adopted the Arab Charter on Human Rights, which incorporated the 1990 Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam,[425] which states:
Human beings are born free, and no one has the right to enslave, humiliate, oppress or exploit them, and there can be no subjugation but to God the Most-High.
— Article 11, Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, 1990
Currently, the Anti-trafficking Coordination Team Initiative (ACT Team Initiative), a coordinated effort between the U.S. Departments of Justice, Homeland Security, and Labor, addresses human trafficking.[426] The International Labour Organization estimates that there are 20.9 million victims of human trafficking globally, including 5.5 million children, of which 55% are women and girls.[427]
Contemporary slavery
According to the Global Slavery Index, slavery continues into the 21st century. It claims that as of 2018, the countries with the most slaves were: India (8 million), China (3.86 million), Pakistan (3.19 million) and North Korea (2.64 million).[428] The countries with highest prevalence of slavery were North Korea (10.5%) and Eritrea (9.3%).[15]
Historiography
Historiography in the United States
The history of slavery originally was the history of the government's laws and policies toward slavery, and the political debates about it. Black history was promoted very largely at black colleges. The situation changed dramatically with the coming of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s. Attention shifted to the enslaved humans, the free blacks, and the struggles of the black community against adversity.[429]
Peter Kolchin described the state of historiography in the early 20th century as follows:
During the first half of the twentieth century, a major component of this approach was often simply racism, manifest in the belief that blacks were, at best, imitative of whites. Thus Ulrich B. Phillips, the era's most celebrated and influential expert on slavery, combined a sophisticated portrait of the white planters' life and behavior with crude passing generalizations about the life and behavior of their black slaves.[430]
Historians
His portrayal of blacks as passive, inferior people, whose African origins made them uncivilized, seemed to provide historical evidence for the theories of racial inferiority that supported racial segregation. Drawing evidence exclusively from plantation records, letters, southern newspapers, and other sources reflecting the slaveholder's point of view, Phillips depicted slavemasters who provided for the welfare of their slaves and contended that true affection existed between master and slave.[431]
The racist attitude concerning slaves carried over into the historiography of the Dunning School of Reconstruction era history, which dominated in the early 20th century. Writing in 2005, the historian Eric Foner states:
Their account of the era rested, as one member of the Dunning school put it, on the assumption of "negro incapacity." Finding it impossible to believe that blacks could ever be independent actors on the stage of history, with their own aspirations and motivations, Dunning et al. portrayed African Americans either as "children", ignorant dupes manipulated by unscrupulous whites, or as savages, their primal passions unleashed by the end of slavery.[432]
Beginning in the 1950s, historiography moved away from the tone of the Phillips era. Historians still emphasized the slave as an object. Whereas Phillips presented the slave as the object of benign attention by the owners, historians such as
In the portrayal of the slave as a victim, the historian
Economic historians
In the 1970s and 1980s, historians made use of sources such as black music and statistical census data to create a more detailed and nuanced picture of slave life. Relying also on 19th-century autobiographies of ex-slaves (known as
Important work on slavery has continued; for instance, in 2003
A national Marist Poll of Americans in 2015 asked, "Was slavery the main reason for the Civil War, or not?" 53% said yes and 41% said not. There were sharp cleavages along lines of region and party. In the South, 49% answered not. Nationwide 55 percent said students should be taught slavery was the reason for the Civil War.[438]
In 2018, a conference at the University of Virginia studied the history of slavery and recent views on it.[439] According to historian Orlando Patterson, in the United States, the profession of sociology has neglected the study of slavery.[440]
Economics of slavery in the West Indies
One of the most controversial aspects of the British Empire is its role in first promoting and then ending slavery. In the 18th-century British merchant ships were the largest element in the "Middle Passage" which transported millions of slaves to the Western Hemisphere. Most of those who survived the journey wound up in the Caribbean, where the Empire had highly profitable sugar colonies, and the living conditions were bad (the plantation owners lived in Britain). Parliament ended the international transportation of slaves in 1807 and used the Royal Navy to enforce that ban. In 1833 it bought out the plantation owners and banned slavery. Historians before the 1940s argued that moralistic reformers such as William Wilberforce were primarily responsible.[441]
Historical revisionism arrived when West Indian historian Eric Williams, a Marxist, in Capitalism and Slavery (1944), rejected this moral explanation and argued that abolition was now more profitable, for a century of sugarcane raising had exhausted the soil of the islands, and the plantations had become unprofitable. It was more profitable to sell the slaves to the government than to keep up operations. The 1807 prohibition of the international trade, Williams argued, prevented French expansion on other islands. Meanwhile, British investors turned to Asia, where labor was so plentiful that slavery was unnecessary. Williams went on to argue that slavery played a major role in making Britain prosperous. The high profits from the slave trade, he said, helped finance the Industrial Revolution. Britain enjoyed prosperity because of the capital gained from the unpaid work of slaves.[442]
Since the 1970s numerous historians have challenged Williams from various angles and Gad Heuman has concluded, "More recent research has rejected this conclusion; it is now clear that the colonies of the British Caribbean profited considerably during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars."[443][444] In his major attack on the Williams's thesis, Seymour Drescher argues that Britain's abolition of the slave trade in 1807 resulted not from the diminishing value of slavery for Britain but instead from the moral outrage of the British voting public.[445] Critics have also argued that slavery remained profitable in the 1830s because of innovations in agriculture so the profit motive was not central to abolition.[446] Richardson (1998) finds Williams's claims regarding the Industrial Revolution are exaggerated, for profits from the slave trade amounted to less than 1% of domestic investment in Britain. Richardson further challenges claims (by African scholars) that the slave trade caused widespread depopulation and economic distress in Africa—indeed that it caused the "underdevelopment" of Africa. Admitting the horrible suffering of slaves, he notes that many Africans benefited directly because the first stage of the trade was always firmly in the hands of Africans. European slave ships waited at ports to purchase cargoes of people who were captured in the hinterland by African dealers and tribal leaders. Richardson finds that the "terms of trade" (how much the ship owners paid for the slave cargo) moved heavily in favor of the Africans after about 1750. That is, indigenous elites inside West and Central Africa made large and growing profits from slavery, thus increasing their wealth and power.[447]
Economic historian Stanley Engerman finds that even without subtracting the associated costs of the slave trade (e.g., shipping costs, slave mortality, mortality of British people in Africa, defense costs) or reinvestment of profits back into the slave trade, the total profits from the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the British economy during any year of the Industrial Revolution.[448] Engerman's 5% figure gives as much as possible in terms of benefit of the doubt to the Williams argument, not solely because it does not take into account the associated costs of the slave trade to Britain, but also because it carries the full-employment assumption from economics and holds the gross value of slave trade profits as a direct contribution to Britain's national income.[449] Historian Richard Pares, in an article written before Williams's book, dismisses the influence of wealth generated from the West Indian plantations upon the financing of the Industrial Revolution, stating that whatever substantial flow of investment from West Indian profits into industry there was occurred after emancipation, not before.[450]
See also
- General
- Types of slavery:
- Types of slave trade:
- Present-day slavery:
- People
- List of famous slaves
- Types of slave soldiers:
- Ideals and organizations
- Abolitionism:
- Abolitionism in the United States
- Anti-Slavery International, founded as the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society in 1839
- Anti-Slavery Society (1823–1838)
- Coalition to Abolish Slavery and Trafficking
- Quakers – Religious Society of Friends
- Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade (1787–1807?)
- United States National Slavery Museum
- Poems on Slavery by Longfellow
- Other
- Fazenda
- History of Liverpool
- History of slavery in the Muslim world
- Slavery in the United States:
- Influx of disease in the Caribbean
- List of court cases in the United States involving slavery
- Pedro Blanco (slave trader)
- Sambo's Grave
- Sante Kimes
- Slave Trade Act
- Slavery and religion
- Slavery at common law
- Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom
- William Lynch speech
- List of films featuring slavery
Notes
References
- ISBN 978-0195189421.
- ISBN 9781139059251.
Somewhat more convincing are statistical surveys of large numbers of societies that show that slavery is rare among hunter-gatherers, is sometimes present in incipient agricultural societies, and then becomes common among societies with more advanced agriculture. Up to this point slavery seems to increase with increasing social and economic complexity.
- PMID 21151711.
Summary characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (SCSS). [...] Social stratification [: ...] Hereditary slavery 24% [...].
- ^ ISBN 9781139059251.
Slavery was a widespread institution in the ancient world (1200 BCE – 900 CE). Slaves could be found in simpler societies, but more important and better known was the existence of slavery in most advanced states. Indeed, it is hard to find any ancient civilizations in which some slavery did not exist. Slave use was sometimes extensive.
- ^
Tetlow, Elisabeth Meier (2004). "Sumer". Women, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: Volume 1: The Ancient Near East. Women, Crime, and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society. Vol. 1. New York: A&C Black. p. 7. ISBN 9780826416285. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
In Sumer, as in most ancient societies, the institution of slavery existed as an integral part of the social and economic structure. Sumer was not, however, a slavery based economy.
- ^
"Mesopotamia: The Code of Hammurabi". Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
e.g. Prologue, "the shepherd of the oppressed and of the slaves" Code of Laws No. 307, "If any one buy from the son or the slave of another man".
- ^ ISBN 978-1-139-03499-9,
For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.
- ^ ISBN 9789988550325.
It is to the Neolithic period of Ghana's history that one must look for the earliest evidence of slavery. Technological advancement and dependence on agriculture created a need for labor. The available evidence indicates that around the 1st century AD farming was done by individual households consisting of blood relations, pawns, and slaves. The earliest evidence of slavery is, therefore, likely to be found in the field of agriculture." and "The retention of captives taken in battle was a recognized practice among every people before the beginning of written history. The ancient records of the Assyrians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Persians, Indians and Chinese are all full of references to slaves and types of labor for which they were usually employed. With the Greeks and the Romans, the institution of slavery reached new heights.
- .
Between the Renaissance and the French Revolution, hundreds of thousands of Muslim men and women from the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean were forcibly transported to Western Europe.
- ISBN 978-0753820568.
- ^ "Inaugural Global Slavery Index Reveals more Than 29 Million people Living In Slavery". Global Slavery Index 2013. 4 October 2013. Archived from the original on 7 April 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
- ^ a b "Slavery, Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan". US Department of State. 22 May 2002. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
- ^ a b c 5 Minutes 10 Minutes. "West is master of slave trade guilt". Theaustralian.news.com.au. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Hodal, Kate (31 May 2016). "One in 200 people is a slave. Why?". The Guardian.
- ^ a b "10 countries with the highest prevalence of modern slavery". Global Slavery Index. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
- ^ "Historical survey: Slave-owning societies". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 23 February 2007.
- ^ "Slavery". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^
Compare:
Ericson, David F. (2000). "Dew, Fitzhugh, and Proslavery Liberalism". The Debate Over Slavery: Antislavery and Proslavery Liberalism in Antebellum America. New York: New York University Press. p. 109. ISBN 9780814722121. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
[...] Fitzhugh compares wives [...], children [...], wards [...], apprentices [...], prisoners [...], soldiers [...], sailors [...], the poor under the English poor laws [...], imported Chinese laborers in the British colonies [...], as well as the remaining serfs of eastern Europe and central Asia [...] with slaves. Thus broadly understood, the status of slaves is very widespread indeed, and every society seems to be a slave society.
- ^ Compare: "Slavery". Encyclopædia Britannica.
[...] for slavery to flourish, social differentiation or stratification was essential. Also essential was an economic surplus, for slaves were often consumption goods who themselves had to be maintained rather than productive assets who generated income for their owner. Surplus was also essential in slave systems where the owners expected economic gain from slave ownership.
Ordinarily there had to be a perceived labour shortage, for otherwise it is unlikely that most people would bother to acquire or to keep slaves. Free land, and more generally, open resources, were often a prerequisite for slavery; in most cases where there were no open resources, non-slaves could be found who would fulfill the same social functions at lower cost. Last, some centralized governmental institutions willing to enforce slave laws had to exist, or else the property aspects of slavery were likely to be chimerical. - ISBN 3161480791, p. 40
- ISBN 080284278X, p. 80
- ^ a b J.M. Roberts, The New Penguin History of the World, pp. 176–77, 223
- ^ "Historical survey > Slave-owning societies". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ "Demography, Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves," by W.V. Harris: The Journal of Roman Studies, 1999.
- ^ "Ancient Egyptian Footwear at the Bata Shoe Museum". Nile Scribes. 2 June 2018.
- ISBN 978-0060153175.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-85773-938-4.
- ^ "A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875 Statutes at Large, 9th Congress, 2nd Session", The Library of Congress, retrieved 26 January 2017
- ISBN 978-1-107-09485-7.
- ^ "Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History". Britannica.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ISBN 978-0521447027.
- ^ Digital History, Steven Mintz. "Digital History Slavery Fact Sheets". Digitalhistory.uh.edu. Archived from the original on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "18th and Early 19th centuries. The Encyclopedia of World History". Bartelby.com. Archived from the original on 2 February 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Central African Republic: History". Infoplease.com. 13 August 1960. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Goitom, Hanibal (14 February 2012). "Abolition of Slavery in Ethiopia". On Custodia Legis: Law Librarians of Congress. Library of Congress. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review), Project MUSE – Journal of World History
- ^ The end of slavery, BBC World Service | The Story of Africa
- ^ "The impact of the slave trade on Africa". Mondediplo.com. 22 March 1998. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Slaves in Saudi Archived 5 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine". Naeem Mohaiemen. The Daily Star. July 27, 2004.
- ^ "Swahili Coast". .nationalgeographic.com. 17 October 2002. Archived from the original on 6 December 2007. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Vernet, Thomas (2009). Slave trade and slavery on the Swahili Coast (1500-1700). archieves.ouvertes.fr. pp. 37–76.
- ^ "Traditional Gender Roles and Slavery | Colonialism, Slavery, and Race". Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
- ^ "Central African Republic: Early history". Britannica.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Civil War in the Sudan: Resources or Religion?". American.edu. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- JSTOR 4283940.
- ^ Allen 2017, Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299
- ^ Copied content from Indian Ocean; see that page's history for attribution.
- ^ "Nordmennene har aldri vært alene i verden (in Norwegian)". .norgeshistorie.no (published by the University of Oslo). 17 October 2002. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
- ISBN 978-1-107-09485-7.
- ^ "The Transatlantic Slave Trade". Metmuseum.org. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained from His Faithful Servants, Chuma and Susi. Cambridge University Press. 1875. p. 352. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
To overdraw its evils is a simple impossibility.
- ISBN 9781108032612. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
- ^ The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained From His Faithful Servants, Chuma and Susi. Cambridge University Press. 1875. p. 352. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
the strangest disease i have sen in this country is brokenheartedness.
- ^ Tunde Obadina. "Slave trade: a root of contemporary African Crisis". Africa Business Information Services. Archived from the original on 2 May 2012. Retrieved 19 September 2010.
- ^ Graeber, David. 2012. Debt: The First 5,000 Years. Brooklyn, NY: Melville House.
- ^ "African Political Ethics and the Slave Trade" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 January 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
- ^ "Museum Theme: The Kingdom of Dahomey". Museeouidah.org. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Dahomey (historical kingdom, Africa)". Britannica.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Benin seeks forgiveness for role in slave trade". Finalcall.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Le Mali précolonial". Histoire-afrique.org. Archived from the original on 1 December 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "The Story of Africa". BBC. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ISBN 978-1594035760. p. 114.
- ^ "African Slave Owners". BBC. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ a b c d Miller, Joseph. "West Central Africa." The Way of Death. University of Wisconsin. 1988. pp. 380–87, 389–91, 398–405, 440–41.
- ^ Equiano, Olaudah. The Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa: The African. Publisher Isaac Knapp. Boston. 1837. Chapter 2.
- ^ Mungo Park, Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa, 1795–7
- ^ Adam Hochschild, King Leopold's Ghost
- ^ a b Smallwood, Stephanie E. Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora. 1st Harvard University Press pbk. ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008.
- ISBN 978-0374289355.
- ^ Baepler, B. "White Slaves, African Masters 1st Edition." White Slaves, African Masters 1st Edition by Baepler. University of Chicago Press, n.d. Web. 7 January 2013. p. 5
- ^ "My Career Redeeming Slaves". MEQ. December 1999. Retrieved 31 July 2008.
- ^ "Slavery, Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan". U.S. Department of State. 22 May 2002. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
- ^ "The Abolition season on BBC World Service". BBC. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law". BBC News. 9 August 2007. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Pflanz, Mike (16 December 2008). "Darfur civilians 'seized as slaves by Sudan military'". Archived from the original on 11 January 2022 – via www.telegraph.co.uk.
- ^ "Darfur Abductions: Sexual Slavery and Forced Labour". Archived from the original on 15 January 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
- ^ "'Thousands made slaves' in Darfur". 17 December 2008 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
- ^ "The Shackles of Slavery in Niger". ABC News. 3 June 2005. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
- ^ Andersson, Hilary (11 February 2005). "Born to be a slave in Niger". BBC News. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
- ^ "Slavery Today". BBC News. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
- ^ "Niger Profile". BBC News. 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
- ^ "Niger: Slavery – an unbroken chain," IRIN, March 2005 (accessed 28 November 2014)
- ^ Duffy, Helen (2008). "HadijatouMani Koroua v Niger: Slavery Unveiled by the ECOWAS Court" (PDF). Human Rights Law Review: 1–20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 June 2015.
- ^ Kelly, Annie (19 January 2016). "Children as young as seven mining cobalt used in smartphones, says Amnesty". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.
- ^ Kelly, Annie (23 July 2014). "Sexual slavery rife in Democratic Republic of the Congo, says MSF". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.
- ^ "Congo, Democratic Republic of the". U.S. Department of State.
- ^ Thomas, Katie (12 March 2007). "Congo's Pygmies live as slaves". The News & Observer. Archived from the original on 28 February 2009.
- ^ As the World Intrudes, Pygmies Feel Endangered, New York Times
- ^ U.S. Department of State Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2005 Human Rights Report on Côte d'Ivoire
- ^ "88 Nigerian schoolgirls abducted by Islamic extremists still missing". The Guardian. Associated Press. 19 April 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
- ^ a b Maclean, Ruth (17 April 2014) Nigerian schoolgirls still missing after military 'fabricated' rescue The Times, (may need a subscription to view online), Retrieved 10 May 2014
- ^ Perkins, Anne (23 April 2014). "200 girls are missing in Nigeria – so why doesn't anybody care?". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
- ^ "Nigerian Police Begin Documentation of Kidnapped Girls". Premium Times. All Africa. 2 May 2014. Retrieved 2 May 2014.
- ^ "Authorities – 276 Kidnapped Girls Still Missing in Nigeria". VOA. Nigeria: All Africa. 2 May 2014. Retrieved 2 May 2014.
- ^ Maclean, Ruth (3 May 2014) Nigerian school says 329 girl pupils missing The Times, (may need a subscription), Retrieved 10 May 2014
- ABC news. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
- ^ Howard LaFranchi (5 May 2014). "What role for US in efforts to rescue Nigeria's kidnapped girls? (+video)". CSMonitor. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
- ^ "Boko Haram kidnapped the 230 school girls as wives for its insurgents". The Rainbow. 29 April 2014. Retrieved 4 July 2016.
- ^ a b Heaton, Laura (30 April 2014). "Nigeria: kidnapped schoolgirls 'sold as wives to Islamist fighters'". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 2 May 2014.
- ^ Hassan, Turaki A; Sule, Ibrahim Kabiru; Mutum, Ronald (29 April 2014). "Abducted girls moved abroad". Daily Trust. Archived from the original on 6 May 2014. Retrieved 6 May 2014.
- ^ a b "Boko Haram admits abducting Nigeria girls from Chibok". BBC News. 5 May 2014. Retrieved 5 May 2014.
- ^ a b Lister, Tim (6 May 2014). "Boko Haram: The essence of terror". CNN. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
- ^ "Muslims Are Taking Countless Africans As Slaves, Starving Them To Death, Selling Them And Taking The Women To Rape Them". 13 April 2017.
- ^ TRT World (12 April 2017). "Libya Slave Trade: Rights group says migrants sold off in markets". Archived from the original on 30 October 2021 – via YouTube.
- ^ TRT World (26 April 2017). "Profiting off the misery of others: Libya's migrant 'slave trade'". Archived from the original on 30 October 2021 – via YouTube.
- ^ "African migrants 'sold in slave markets'". BBC News. 11 April 2017.
- ^ Graham-Harrison, Emma (10 April 2017). "Migrants from west Africa being 'sold in Libyan slave markets'". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.
- ^ "African migrants sold as 'slaves' in Libya". 3 July 2020.
- ^ "West African migrants are kidnapped and sold in Libyan slave markets / Boing Boing". boingboing.net. 11 April 2017.
- ^ Adams, Paul (28 February 2017). "Libya exposed as child migrant abuse hub". BBC News.
- ^ "Immigrant Women, Children Raped, Starved in Libya's Hellholes: Unicef". 28 February 2017. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
- ^ "Maya Society". Library.umaine.edu. Archived from the original on 1 June 2020. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "human sacrifice – Britannica Concise Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Bolivia – Ethnic Groups". Countrystudies.us. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Slavery in the New World". Britannica.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "UH - Digital History". www.digitalhistory.uh.edu. Archived from the original on 15 July 2007.
- ^ "Warfare". www.civilization.ca. Gatineau: Canadian Museum of History. 30 November 1998. Archived from the original on 23 September 2008. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
- ^ Herbert S. Klein and Francisco Vidal Luna, Slavery in Brazil (Cambridge University Press, 2010)
- ^ "The West: Encounters and Transformations"
- ^ "Rebellions in Bahia, 1798–1838. Culture of slavery". Isc.temple.edu. Archived from the original on 21 November 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Bandeira". Britannica.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Bandeira – Encyclopædia Britannica". Concise.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 28 November 2006. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Bandeirantes". V-brazil.com. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Richard Price, Maroon societies: Rebel slave communities in the Americas (JHU Press, 1996)
- ^ Leslie Bethell, The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade Question (Cambridge University Press, 2009)
- ^ Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts, 88–90
- ^ Robert Toplin, The abolition of slavery in Brazil (1972).
- ^ "Involuntary Immigrants". The New York Times. 27 August 1995. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ISBN 978-9768125132.
- .
- ^ Edward Gregg. Queen Anne (2001), pp. 341, 361.
- ISBN 978-0684835655.
- JSTOR 1856592.
- ]
- ^ a b Kitchin, Thomas (1778). The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe. London: R. Baldwin. p. 21.
- ^ "Slavery and the Haitian Revolution". Chnm.gmu.edu. Archived from the original on 5 November 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ a b "A Brief History of Dessalines". Missionary Journal. Webster.edu. 1825. Archived from the original on 1 September 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Haiti, 1789 to 1806". www.fsmitha.com.
- ^ Dryden, John. 1992 "Pas de Six Ans!" In: Seven Slaves & Slavery: Trinidad 1777–1838, by Anthony de Verteuil, Port of Spain, pp. 371–79.
- ISBN 978-1-4408-5097-4.
- ^ a b
Marcel Trudel; Micheline d' Allaire (2013). Canada's Forgotten Slaves: Two Centuries of Bondage. Independent Publishing Group. p. Intro. ISBN 978-1-55065-327-4.
- ^ "Slavery". Virtual Museum of New France. Canadian Museum of History. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-19-517055-9.
- ^ "Black Enslavement in Canada | The Canadian Encyclopedia". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca.
- ISBN 978-0-7710-2099-5.
- ISBN 978-1-55481-321-6.
- ^ "Full text of "The slave in Canada"". archive.org. 1920.
- ISBN 978-1-4214-1842-1.
- ^ Michael Edward Stanfield, Red Rubber, Bleeding Trees: Violence, Slavery, and Empire in Northwest Amazonia, 1850–1933
- ^ Mark Edelman, "A Central American Genocide: Rubber, Slavery, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Guatusos-Malekus," Comparative Studies in Society and History (1998), 40: 356–390.
- ^ [1] 400 years ago, enslaved Africans first arrived in Virginia
- ^ "Where the Landing of the First Africans in English North America Really Fits in the History of Slavery". Time. 20 August 2019. Retrieved 11 August 2023.
- JSTOR 4249092.
- ^ Donoghue, John (2010). Out of the Land of Bondage": The English Revolution and the Atlantic Origins of Abolition. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ISBN 978-1851095445.
- ^ "Rhode Island bans slavery: 18 May 1652". 18 May 1652.
- ISBN 9780722297803.
- ^ "Records of the County Court of Northampton, Virginia, Orders Deeds and Wills, 1651–1654". The Journal of Negro History. June 1916. p. 10.
- ^ McElrath, Jessica, Timeline of Slavery in America-African American History Archived 13 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine, About.com. Retrieved 6 December 2006.
- ^ Wood, Origins of American Slavery (1997), pp. 64–65.
- ^ "America's First Anti-Slavery Statute Was Passed in 1652. Here's Why It Was Ignored". 18 May 2017.
- ^ Wilson, Thomas D. The Ashley Cooper Plan: The Founding of Carolina and the Origins of Southern Political Culture. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2016. Chapter 3.
- ^ Joseph Cephas Carroll, Slave Insurrections in the United States, 1800–1865, p. 13
- S2CID 140979420.
- ISBN 9780820338644– via Google Books.
- ^ "Founders Online: Adams' Minutes of the Argument: Essex Superior Court, Salem, N …". founders.archives.gov.
- ^ Meserette (29 January 2016). "Jenny Slew: The first enslaved person to win her freedom via jury trial". Kentake Page. Retrieved 24 July 2019.
- ^ Thursday Open Thread: Little Known Slave Court Cases NOVEMBER 9, 2017 BY MIRANDA
- ^ Legal Papers of John Adams, volume 2
- ISBN 978-0-19-974178-6– via Google Books.
- ^ "The Proceedings of the Cambridge Historical Society, Volume 40, 1964-1966" (PDF).
- ^ Whitefield, Harvey Amani (2014). "The Problem of Slavery in Early Vermont". Vermont History. Vermont Historical Society. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
- ^ "REGULATING THE TRADE". New York Public Library. Retrieved 24 June 2014.
- ^ Dictionary of Afro-American slavery By Randall M. Miller, John David Smith. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997. p. 471.
- ^ Foner, Eric. "Forgotten step towards freedom," New York Times. 30 December 2007.
- ^ "Africans in America" – PBS Series – Part 4 (2007)
- ^ Leonard L. Richards, The Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780–1860 (2000)
- ^ "Introduction – Social Aspects of the Civil War". Itd.nps.gov. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Eric Foner, Free soil, free labor, free men: The ideology of the Republican party before the Civil War (1971).
- ^ Michael Vorenberg, ed. The Emancipation Proclamation: A Brief History with Documents (2010),
- ^ Ira Berlin, Joseph Patrick Reidy, and Leslie S. Rowland, eds. Freedom's Soldiers: The Black Military Experience in the Civil War (1998).
- ^ Jim Downs, Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction (2015)
- ^ Margaret Humphreys, Marrow of Tragedy: The Health Crisis of the American Civil War (2013)
- ^ Paul A. Cimbala, The Freedmen's Bureau: Reconstructing the American South after the Civil War (2005)
- ^ Eric Foner, A short history of Reconstruction, 1863–1877 (1990)
- ^ C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (1951)
- ^ ^ "Ancient Slavery". Ditext.com. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
- ISBN 978-0521281812.
- ^ "Cyrus Charter of Human Rights". www.persepolis.nu. MANI. Retrieved 21 July 2015
- ^ a b Lewis 1994, Ch.1
- ^ [Total of black slave trade in the Muslim world from Sahara, Red Sea and Indian Ocean routes thru the 19th century comes to an estimated 11,500,000, "a figure not far short of the 11,863,000 estimated to have been loaded onto ships during the four centuries of the Atlantic slave trade." (Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformation in Slavery (CUP, 1983)
- ^ Raymond Mauvy estimates a total of 14 million black slaves were traded in Islam thru the 20th Century, including 300,000 for part of the 20th century. (p. 57, source: "Les Siecles obsurs de l'Afrique Noire" (Paris: Fayard, 1970)]
- ^ Hochschild, Ada (4 March 2001). "Human Cargo". New York Times. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
- Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Du Pasquier, Roger, Unveiling Islam, p. 67
- ^ Gordon 1987, p. 40.
- ^ The Qur'an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English By Ali Ünal p. 1323 [2]
- Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Slaves and Slavery
- Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 36
- S2CID 240619349.
- ISBN 9780520051294– via Google Books.
- ISBN 9781850657088– via Google Books.
- ^ Clarence-Smith. W. G. Religions and the abolition of slavery - a comparative approach. https://www.lse.ac.uk/Economic-History/Assets/Documents/Research/GEHN/GEHNConferences/conf10/Conf10-ClarenceSmith.pdf
- ^ Youval Rotman, "Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World", transl. by Jane Marie Todd, Cambridge, Massachusetts – London, Harvard University Press 2009. Book presentation in a) Nikolaos Linardos (University of Athens), , Mediterranean Chronicle 1 (2011) pp. 281, 282, b) Alice Rio, American Historical Review, Vol. 115, Issue 5, 2010, pp. 1513–1514
- ^ Toynbee 1973, pp. 382–383, 388–390.
- ^ Oikonomides 1991, p. 1722.
- ^ Toynbee 1973, p. 388.
- ISBN 978-1-134-45259-0. Archivedfrom the original on 12 October 2020. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
Some 30,000 Christians were either enslaved or sold.
- ISBN 978-0-19-521930-2.
- ^ "Supply of Slaves".
- ^ Ottomans against Italians and Portuguese about (white slavery).
- ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History.
- ^ Wolf Von Schierbrand (28 March 1886). "Slaves sold to the Turk; How the vile traffic is still carried on in the East. Sights our correspondent saw for twenty dollars—in the house of a grand old Turk of a dealer. (news was reported on March 4)" (PDF). The New York Times. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
- ^ Madeline C. Zilfi Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire Cambridge University Press, 2010
- ISBN 978-0801883248.
- ^ "Janissary". www.everything2.com.
- ^ Morgenthau, Henry (1918). "8". Ambassador Morgenthau's Story. Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday, Page & Co. Retrieved 24 July 2019.
- ^ "Ambassador Morgenthau's Story. 1918. Chapter Twenty-Four". www.gwpda.org.
- ISBN 978-1317754220– via Google Books.
- ^ Salon, 5 April 2001. Quote: "Here we get to a further dimension of the difference between the two trades. Slavery in the West...the concept of race developed and was popularized...The Koran very explicitly attacks [racism]...This is important for the assimilation aspect too, because once you were freed, there was no discrimination in law against you...I don't think that there's any disputing that slavery was a more benevolent institution in Islam than it was in the West."
- ISBN 1405195096
- ^ A Sharma (September 2005), Journal American Acad Religion, vol 73, issue 3, pp. 843–70
- ^ a b J.W. McCrindle (Translator), Ancient India Trubner & Co. London
- ISBN 978-3874907118. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ISBN 978-0674024779. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ Society for East Asian Studies (2001). Journal of East Asian archaeology, Volume 3. Brill. p. 299. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ History of Science Society (1952). Osiris, Volume 10. Saint Catherine Press. p. 144. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ Anthony Jerome Barbieri-Low (2007). Artisans in early imperial China. University of Washington Press. p. 146. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ ISBN 9781300568070.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ Schafer, Edward Hetzel (1967). The Vermilion Bird. University of California Press. p. 56.
slave girls of viet.
- ISBN 978-0786476848. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
- ^ (Japan), Tōyō Bunko. Memoirs of the Research Department, Issue 2. p. 63. Retrieved 4 July 2010.
- ISBN 978-0275958237. Retrieved 4 July 2010.
- ISBN 978-0195056396. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
- ISBN 978-0313325434. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
- ISBN 978-0520054622. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
- ^ Gray, John Henry. (1878). China: A History of the Laws, Manners and Customs of the People, pp. 241–43. Reprint: Dover Publications, Mineola, New York. (2002).
- ^ . Commemoration of the Abolition of Slavery Project
- ^ Andre Wink, Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 1, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, Seventh to Eleventh Centuries (Leiden, 1990)
- ^ a b Muhammad Qasim Firishta, Tarikh-i-Firishta (Lucknow, 1864).
- ^ a b Andre Wink, Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 2, The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest, 11th–13th centuries (Leiden, 1997)
- ^ a b Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Utbi, Tarikh al-Yamini (Delhi, 1847), tr. by James Reynolds, The Kitab-i-Yamini (London, 1858),
- ^ Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg, tr., The Chachnamah, an Ancient History of Sind, 1900, reprint (Delhi, 1979), pp. 154, 163. This thirteenth-century source is a Persian translation of an (apparently lost) eighth-century Arabic manuscript detailing the Islamic conquests of Sind.
- PMID 21741027.
- ISBN 978-9004095090, pages 172-173
- ^ Wink, Al-Hind, II
- ^ Henry M. Elliot and John Dowson, History of India as told by its own Historians, 8 vols (London, 1867–77), II,
- ^ Dale, Indian Merchants,
- ISBN 978-9004095090, pages 14-15
- ^ Satish C. Misra, The Rise of Muslim Power in Gujarat (Bombay, 1963), p. 205.
- ^ Cambridge History of India ed. Wolseley Haig, Vol. III pp. 356, 449.
- ^ Cambridge History of India ed. Wolseley Haig, Vol. III, pp. 391, 397–98
- ^ Sewell, Robert. A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar) pp. 57–58.
- ^ Moreland W.H., India at the Death of Akbar, (1920) p. 92.
- ^ Sarkar, Jadunath. The History Of Aurangzeb, vol. III, pp. 331–32
- ^ Khan, Samsam ud Daula Shah Nawaz; Khan, Abdul Hai. Maasir-ul-Umara (in Persian). Vol. III. Translated by Beni Prasad; Beveridge, H. Calcutta. p. 442.
- ^ Travels of Fray Sebāstien Manrique, 1629–1643 vol. II, p. 272. (Ashgate, 2010 reprint)
- ^ "Slavery is not dead, just less recognizable". Csmonitor.com. 1 September 2004. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Life as a modern slave in Pakistan". BBC News. 25 November 2004. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Widespread slavery found in Nepal, BBC News
- ^ Dyer, Reginald (1921). The raiders of the Sarhad. London, H.F. & G. Witherby. pp. 42–44.
- ^ Ju Zhifen (2002). "Japan's Atrocities of Conscripting and Abusing North China Draftees after the Outbreak of the Pacific War". Joint study of the Sino-Japanese war.
- ^ Library of Congress, 1992, "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45" Access date: 9 February 2007.
- ISBN 978-3825840105. Available online: "Statistics of Democide: Chapter 3 – Statistics Of Japanese Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources". Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War. Retrieved 1 March 2006.
- ^ Rhee, Young-hoon; Yang, Donghyu. "Korean Nobi in American Mirror: Yi Dynasty Coerced Labor in Comparison to the Slavery in the Antebellum Southern United States". Working Paper Series. Institute of Economic Research, Seoul National University.
- ^ "Cambodia Angkor Wat". Travel.mongabay.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Slavery". Britannica.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ White, John Claude (1909). Sikhim & Bhutan: Twenty-one Years on the North-east Frontier, 1887-1908. E. Arnold.
- ^ Gupta, Shantiswarup (1974). British Relations With Bhutan. Panchsheel Prakashan.
- ^ "ILO cracks the whip at Yangon". Atimes.com. 29 March 2005. Archived from the original on 4 April 2005. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ McKenna, Thomas H. (1998). Muslim Rulers and Rebels. University of California Press.
- ^ Warren, James Francis (2007). "The Port of Jolo and the Sulu Zone Slave Trade" (PDF). The Journal of Sophia Asian Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2014.
- ^ "Stamps". Stamslandia.webng.com. Archived from the original on 22 September 2008.
- ^ "Toraja History and Cultural Relations". Everyculture.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Fiona Keating, "Iraq Slave Markets Sell Women for $10 to Attract Isis Recruits", International Business Times, 4 October 2014.
- ^ Brekke, Kira (8 September 2014). "ISIS Is Attacking Women, And Nobody Is Talking About It". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
- ^ Richard Spencer, "Isil carried out massacres and mass sexual enslavement of Yazidis, UN confirms," The Telegraph, 14 October 2014
- ^ Reuters, "Islamic State Seeks to Justify Enslaving Yazidi Women and Girls in Iraq," Newsweek, 13 Oct 2014
- ^ "Judgment Day Justifies Sex Slavery Of Women – ISIS Out With Its 4th Edition Of Dabiq Magazine". International Business Times-Australia. 13 October 2014. Archived from the original on 14 October 2014.
- ^ Allen McDuffee, "ISIS Is Now Bragging About Enslaving Women and Children," The Atlantic, 13 October 2014
- ^ Salma Abdelaziz, "ISIS states its justification for the enslavement of women," CNN, 13 October 2014
- ^ Richard Spencer, "Thousands of Yazidi women sold as sex slaves 'for theological reasons', says Isil," The Daily Telegraph, 13 October 2014.
- ^ Nour Malas, "Ancient Prophecies Motivate Islamic State Militants: Battlefield Strategies Driven by 1,400-year-old Apocalyptic Ideas," The Wall Street Journal, 18 November 2014 (accessed 22 November 2014)
- ^ "Islamic State Cites the Koran to Reinstate Sex Slavery". www.atheistrepublic.com. 4 September 2015.
- ^ "Islamic State Price List for Captured Christian Women". newenglishreview.com. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
- ^ "Trump's China Deal Boosts U.S. LNG Without Rule Change". Bloomberg.com. 12 May 2017 – via www.bloomberg.com.
- ^ "Isis slave markets sell girls for 'as little as a pack of cigarettes', UN envoy says". The Guardian. Agence France-Presse. 9 June 2015 – via www.theguardian.com.
- ^ "Saudi Arabian Buyers Are Shopping For Sex Slaves – At ISIS Auctions!". Indiatimes. 28 September 2016.
- JSTOR 2708589
- ^ "Sparta – A Military City-State". Ancienthistory.about.com. 7 August 2010. Archived from the original on 7 November 2005. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Thomas R. Martin, Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times (Yale UP, 2000) pp. 66, 75–77
- ^ Ancient Greece. Archived from the original on 28 October 2009.
- ^ "Slavery," The Encyclopedia Americana, 1981, p. 19
- ^ The Ancient Celts, Barry Cunliffe
- ^ Strabo Geography. Book IV Chapter 5 [4]
- ^ "Iron Age iron gang chain". Museum Wales. Retrieved 11 August 2023.
- ^
Campbelly, Jamesetta (2011). "Part I: The Romans to the Norman Conquest, 500 BC – AD 1066". In ISBN 978-0712664967. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
Whatever currency was in use [in Ireland in antiquity], it was not coin—as in other pre-coin economies, there was a system of conventional valuations in which female slaves, for example, were important units.
- ^ ISBN 978-0874368857.
- .
- ^ Frost, Peter (14 September 2013). "From Slavs to Slaves". Evo and Proud.
- ISBN 978-1107394704.
- ^ James William Brodman. "Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier". Libro.uca.edu. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ISBN 978-0719018251.
- ^ "Famous Battles in History The Turks and Christians at Lepanto". Trivia-library.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- PMID 4875614.
- ^ "Brief History of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem". Hmml.org. 23 September 2010. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Historical survey > Ways of ending slavery". Britannica.com. 31 January 1910. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Allen J. Frantzen and Douglas Moffat, eds. The Work of Work: Servitude, Slavery, and Labor in Medieval England (1994)
- ISBN 9781403938695 [5]
- OCLC 30141458.
- ISBN 978-0-7156-3129-4.
- ^
Olivia Remie Constable (1996). Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500. Cambridge University Press. pp. 203–04. ISBN 0521565030
- ^ "slave", Online Etymology Dictionary, retrieved 26 March 2009
- ^ a b c
Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800. Robert Davis (2004). p. 45. ISBN 1403945519.
- ^ Junius A. Rodriguez, ed., The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery (1997) 2:659
- ^ Paul E. Lovejoy, Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam. (2004) p. 27
- ^ "Roma Celebrate 150 years of Freedom 2005 Romania". Roconsulboston.com. 21 February 2006. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "The Destruction of Kiev". Tspace.library.utoronto.ca. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols". Depts.washington.edu. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Life in 13th Century Novgorod – Women and Class Structure". 26 October 2009. Archived from the original on 26 October 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Sras.Org (15 July 2003). "The Effects of the Mongol Empire on Russia". Sras.org. Archived from the original on 24 February 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ISBN 0817966633.
- ^ Rawlins, Gregory J.E. "Rebooting Reality – Chapter 2, Labor". roxie.org. Archived from the original on 23 December 2008. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
- ^ The Full Collection of the Russian Annals, vol. 13, SPb, 1904
- ISBN 0817966633.
- ISBN 0930888006. Archived from the originalon 1 January 2016. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
- JSTOR 25818051. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
- ^ "The Tatar Khanate of Crimea – All Empires". Allempires.com. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ MATSUKI, Eizo (2006). "The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves: An Aspect of Muscovite-Crimean Relations in the 16th and 17th Centuries". Mediterranean World. XVIII. Tokyo: Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University: 171–182. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
- ^ "Historical survey > Slave societies". Britannica.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Arctic Studies Center | Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History". naturalhistory.si.edu.
- ^ Skyum-Nielsen, Niels (1978). "Nordic Slavery in an International Context". Medieval Scandinavia. 11: 126–48.
- ^ "The Last Galleys". Uh.edu. 1 August 2004. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Huguenots and the Galleys". Manakin.addr.com. 14 June 2011. Archived from the original on 2 February 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "French galley slaves of the ancien régime". Milism.net. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "The Great Siege of 1565". Sanandrea.edu.mt. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Niklas Thode Jensen, and Simonsen, Gunvor. "Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950–2016." Scandinavian Journal of History Sep-Dec 2016, Vol. 41 Issue 4/5, pp. 475–94.
- ISBN 978-0874368857. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Jeremy Popkin, You Are All Free: The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery(Cambridge University Press; 2010)
- OCLC 1040594362.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link - ^ Allard, Paul (1912). "Slavery and Christianity". Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. XIV. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 4 February 2006.
- ^ a b Klein, Herbert. The Atlantic Slave Trade.
- ^ Bales, Kevin. Understanding Global Slavery: A Reader
- ISBN 978-0965049375.
- ^ ISBN 978-0231031592, pp. 158–60, 362–70.
- ^ Thomas Foster Earle, K.J.P. Lowe "Black Africans in Renaissance Europe" p. 157 Google
- ^ David Northrup, "Africa's Discovery of Europe" p. 8 (Google)
- ^ a b Ramos, Luís O. (1971). "Pombal e o esclavagismo" (PDF). Repositório Aberto da UNiversidade do Porto.
- ^ Caldeira, Arlindo Manuel (2013). Escravos e Traficantes no Império Português: O comércio negreiro português no Atlântico durante os séculos XV a XIX (in Portuguese). A Esfera dos Livros. pp. 219–224.
- ^ "Chapter 1: Health In Slavery". www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
- ^ "CIA Factbook: Haiti". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 12 June 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Garcia Anoveros, J.M. Carlos V y la abolicion de la exclavitud de los indios, Causas, evolucion y circunstancias. Revista de Indias, 2000, vol. LX, núm. 218
- ^ "Ways of ending slavery". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
- ^ The Cuba Reader: History, Culture, Politics.
(2004) Edited by Aviva Chomsky, Barry Carr, Pamela Maria Smorkaloff, ISBN 978-0822331971, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Johannes Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815 (2008)
- ^ Atlas of Mutual Heritage. "Plaats: Allada (Ardra, Ardres, Arder, Allada, Harder)". Archived from the original on 3 May 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
- ^ Atlas of Mutual Heritage. "Plaats: Ouidah (Fida, Whydah, Juda, Hueda, Whidah)". Archived from the original on 4 May 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
- ^ Delepeleire 2004, section 3.c.2.
- ^ P.C. Emmer, Chris Emery, "The Dutch Slave Trade, 1500–1850" (2006) p. 3
- ^ Atlas of Mutual Heritage. "Plaats: Jaquim (Jaquin, Jakri, Godomey, Jakin)". Archived from the original on 4 May 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
- ^ Rik Van Welie, "Slave Trading and Slavery in the Dutch Colonial Empire: A Global Comparison," NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids, 2008, Vol. 82 Issue 1/2, pp. 47–96 tables 2 and 3
- ^ Vink Markus, "'The World's Oldest Trade': Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century," Journal of World History June 2003 24 December 2010 Archived 24 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants". Wesleyan Juvenile Offering. XVI: 12. February 1859. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
- ^ Rees Davies, British Slaves on the Barbary Coast, BBC, 1 July 2003
- ISBN 978-1846032400. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
- ^ de Bruxelles, Simon (28 February 2007). "Pirates who got away with it". Study of sails on pirate ships. London. Retrieved 25 November 2007.
- )
- ^ a b c d e f Hannay, David McDowall (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 383–384.
- .
- ^ "Historical survey > Slave societies". Britannica.com. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
- ^ a b Mikhail Kizilov (2007). "Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources". Oxford University. 11 (1): 1–31.
- The Jamestown Foundation. p. 27. Archived from the original(PDF) on 21 October 2013.
- ^ Digital History, Steven Mintz. "Was slavery the engine of economic growth?". Digitalhistory.uh.edu. Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Patrick Medd,"Romilly", Collins, 1968, p. 149.
- ^ Rhodes, Nick (2003). William Cowper: Selected Poems. p. 84. Routledge, 2003
- ^ Simon Schama, Rough Crossings (London: BBC Books, 2005), p. 61.
- ^ Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore BBC
- ^ "The West African Squadron and slave trade". Pdavis.nl. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Anti-Slavery International UNESCO. Retrieved 15 October 2011
- ISBN 978-0934139052, p. 48
- Virginia Gazette reported that a white man William Pitman had been hanged for the murder of his own black slave. Blacks in Colonial America, p. 101, Oscar Reiss, McFarland & Company, 1997; Virginia Gazette, 21 April 1775, University of Mary WashingtonDepartment of Historic Preservation archives
- S2CID 145344942. Archived from the original(PDF) on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2013. (offprint)
- ^ Yale Law School Avalon Project retrieved 8 January 2011
- ^ "German Firms That Used Slave or Forced Labor During the Nazi Era". Jewish Virtual Library. 27 January 2000. Retrieved 19 September 2010.
- ^ United States Holocaust Museum retrieved 8 January 2011
- S2CID 143467546.
- ^ Tjersland, Jonas (8 April 2006). "Tyske soldater brukt som mineryddere" [German soldiers used for mine-clearing] (in Norwegian). VG Nett. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
- ^ "Система исправительно-трудовых лагерей в СССР". Memo.ru. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
- ^ Robert Conquest in "Victims of Stalinism: A Comment." Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 49, No. 7 (Nov. 1997), pp. 1317–19 states: "We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals (even if not as complete) with their 14 million intake to Gulag 'camps' alone, to which must be added 4–5 million going to Gulag 'colonies', to say nothing of the 3.5 million already in, or sent to, 'labor settlements'. However taken, these are surely 'high' figures."
- ^ mythichawaii.com (23 October 2006). "Kapu System and Caste System of Ancient Hawai'i". Mythichawaii.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Levin, Stephenie Seto (1968). "The Overthrow of the Kapu System in Hawaii". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 77: 402–30. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
- ISBN 978-0935848489.
- JSTOR 480764.
- ISBN 978-1-86940-757-5.
- ^ Clark, Ross (1994). Moriori and Maori: The Linguistic Evidence. In Sutton, Douglas G. (Ed.) (1994), The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press. pp. 123–35.
- ^ Solomon, Māui; Denise Davis (9 June 2006). Moriori. Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 8 May 2006. Retrieved 12 March 2008.
- ^ Howe, Kerry (9 June 2006). "Ideas of Māori origins". Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 12 March 2008.
- ISBN 978-0140103915.
- ^ Moriori. M. King. Penguin. 2003.
- ^ "Moriori – The impact of new arrivals – Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand". Teara.govt.nz. 4 March 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Chatham Islands". New Zealand A to Z. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Moriori. Michael King. Penguin. 2003.
- ^ Seymour Drescher, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery (Cambridge University Press, 2009)
- ^ "Inventory of the Archives of the Registrar and Guardian of Slaves, 1717–1848[usurped]"
- ^ (1772) 20 State Tr 1; (1772) Lofft 1
- ^ Paul E. Lovejoy: 'The Volume of the Atlantic Slave Trade: A Synthesis.' The Journal of African History, Vol. 23, No. 4 (1982).
- ISBN 978-0521780124.
- ^ Dryden, John. 1992 "Pas de Six Ans!" In: Seven Slaves & Slavery: Trinidad 1777–1838, by Anthony de Verteuil, Port of Spain, pp. 371–79.
- ^ "Indian Legislation". Commonlii.org. Archived from the original on 30 September 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/96359. Retrieved 20 December 2020. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- ^ The Committee Office, House of Commons (6 March 2006). "House of Commons – International Development – Memoranda". Publications.parliament.uk. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Response The 1833 Abolition of Slavery Act didn't end the vile trade". The Guardian. UK. 25 January 2007. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Our history". Anti-Slavery International. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
- S2CID 144324974.
- ^ Steven Englund, Napoleon: A Political Life (2004) p. 259.
- ISBN 9781850657088– via Google Books.
- ISBN 2262017727), p. 256
- ^ "Background on Conflict in Liberia". fcnl.org. Washington, D.C.: Friends Committee on National Legislation. 30 July 2003. Archived from the original on 8 January 2011. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
- ISBN 978-0822319924
- ^ Robin D.G. Kelley and Earl Lewis, To Make Our World Anew: Volume I (2005) p. 255
- ^ The Parliamentary Debates from the Year 1803 to the Present Time, Published by s.n., 1816 Volume 32. p. 200
- ISBN 978-0195334029.
- ^ "Slavery in Islam". BBC.co.uk. BBC. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
- ^ McKee, Caroline (7 July 2015). "U.S. works to fight modern-day slavery". Retrieved 21 July 2015.
- ^ "Human Trafficking". polarisproject.org. Archived from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
- ^ "Which countries have the highest rates of modern slavery and most victims? - World | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 31 July 2018.
- ^ August Meier, August, and Elliott M. Rudwick, eds. Black history and the historical profession, 1915–80 (1986).
- ^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877 (1993) p. 134.
- ISBN 978-0195304510.
- ISBN 978-0307834584.
- Cavalierscoping with a vexing social problem that was not of their own making."
- ISBN 978-0809016303.
- ^ Kolchin p. 136
- ^ Kolchin pp. 137–43. Horton and Horton p. 9
- ^ Robert E. Wright, Fubarnomics (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 2010), 83–116.
- ^ "A Nation Still Divided: The Confederate Flag," Marist Poll (2015)
- ^ Serven, Ruth (21 March 2018). "Slavery reparations, memorials discussed at UVA conference". Richmond Times-Dispatch.
- S2CID 214050925.
- ^ Frank Joseph Klingberg, The anti-slavery movement in England: a study in English humanitarianism (Yale University Press, 1926)
- ^ Barbara Solow and Stanley L. Engerman, eds., British capitalism and Caribbean slavery: The legacy of Eric Williams (Cambridge University Press, 2004)
- ^ Gad Heuman "The British West Indies" in Andrew Porter, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire – Vol. 3: The 19th Century (1999) 3:470
- ^ Seymour Drescher, "Eric Williams: British Capitalism and British Slavery." History and Theory (1987): 180–96. online Archived 29 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Seymour Drescher, Econocide: British Slavery in the Era of Abolition (1977).
- ^ J.R. Ward, "The British West Indies in the Age of Abolition," in P.J. Marshall, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (1998) pp. 415–39.
- ^ David Richardson, "The British Empire and the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1660–1807," in P.J. Marshall, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (1998) pp. 440–64.
- S2CID 154620412.
- S2CID 154620412.
- JSTOR 2590147.
- New York Times. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
- ^ Kavita Puri (29 October 2014). "Switzerland's shame: The children used as cheap farm labour". BBC News. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
Bibliography
- The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011–2021
- Volume 1: The Ancient Mediterranean World, Edited by Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge, 2011
- Volume 2: AD 500–AD 1420, Edited by Craig Perry, David Eltis, Stanley L. Engerman, David Richardson, 2021
- Volume 3: AD 1420–AD 1804, Edited by David Eltis and Stanley L. Engerman, 2011
- Volume 4: AD 1804–AD 2016, Edited by David Eltis, Stanley L. Engerman, Seymour Drescher and David Richardson, 2017
- Allen, R. B. (2017). "Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean" (PDF). Tempo. 23 (2): 294–313. . Retrieved 30 June 2019.
- Davis, David Brion. Slavery and Human Progress (1984).
- Davis, David Brion. The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (1966)
- Davis, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World(2006)
- Drescher, Seymour. Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery (Cambridge University Press, 2009)
- Finkelman, Paul, ed. Slavery and Historiography (New York: Garland, 1989)
- Finkelman, Paul, and Joseph Miller, eds. Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery (2 vol 1998)
- Hinks, Peter, and John McKivigan, eds. Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition (2 vol. 2007) 795 pp; ISBN 978-0313331428
- Linden, Marcel van der, ed. Humanitarian Intervention and Changing Labor Relations: The Long-Term Consequences of the Abolition of the Slave Trade (Brill Academic Publishers, 2011) online review
- McGrath, Elizabeth and Massing, Jean Michel, The Slave in European Art: From Renaissance Trophy to Abolitionist Emblem (London: The Warburg Institute, 2012.)
- Miller, Joseph C. The problem of slavery as history: a global approach (Yale University Press, 2012.)
- Parish, Peter J. Slavery: History and Historians (1989)
- Phillips, William D. Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Atlantic Slave Trade (1984)
- Rodriguez, Junius P. ed. The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery (2 vol. 1997)
- Rodriguez, Junius P. ed. Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion (2 vol. 2007)
Greece and Rome
- Bradley, Keith. Slavery and Society at Rome (1994)
- Cuffel, Victoria. "The Classical Greek Concept of Slavery," Journal of the History of Ideas Vol. 27, No. 3 (Jul–Sep 1966), pp. 323–42 JSTOR 2708589
- Finley, Moses, ed. Slavery in Classical Antiquity (1960)
- Westermann, William L. The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity (1955) 182 pp
Europe: Middle Ages
- Delepeleire, Y. (2004). Nederlands Elmina: een socio-economische analyse van de Tweede Westindische Compagnie in West-Afrika in 1715. Gent: Universiteit Gent.
- Rio, Alice. Slavery After Rome, 500-1100 (Oxford University Press, 2017) online review
- Stark, Rodney. The victory of reason: How Christianity led to freedom, capitalism, and Western success (Random House, 2006).
- Verhulst, Adriaan. "The decline of slavery and the economic expansion of the Early Middle Ages." Past & Present No. 133 (Nov., 1991), pp. 195–203 online
Africa and Middle East
- Campbell, Gwyn. The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (Frank Cass, 2004)
- Davis, Robert C., Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, The Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800 (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2003) ISBN 0333719662
- Hershenzon, Daniel. "Towards a connected history of bondage in the Mediterranean: Recent trends in the field." History Compass 15.8 (2017). on Christian captives
- Lovejoy, Paul. Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge UP, 1983)
- ISBN 0-19-504652-8.
- Toledano, Ehud R. As If Silent and Absent: Bonds of Enslavement in the Islamic Middle East (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 978-0300126181
- ISBN 0-19-215253-X.
Atlantic trade, Latin America and British Empire
- Blackburn, Robin. The American Crucible: Slavery, Emancipation, and Human Rights (Verso; 2011) 498 pp; on slavery and abolition in the Americas from the 16th to the late 19th centuries.
- Fradera, Josep M. and Christopher Schmidt-Nowara, eds. Slavery and Antislavery in Spain's Atlantic Empire (2013) online
- Klein, Herbert S. African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (Oxford University Press, 1988)
- Klein, Herbert. The Atlantic Slave Trade (1970)
- Klein, Herbert S. Slavery in Brazil (Cambridge University Press, 2009)
- Morgan, Kenneth. Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America (2008)
- ISBN 978-0544602670.
- Jensen, Niklas Thode; Simonsen, Gunvor (2016). "Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950-2016". .
- Stinchcombe, Arthur L. Sugar Island Slavery in the Age of Enlightenment: The Political Economy of the Caribbean World (Princeton University Press, 1995)
- Thomas, Hugh. The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870 (Simon & Schuster, 1997)
- Walvin, James. Black Ivory: Slavery in the British Empire (2nd ed. 2001)
- Ward, J.R. British West Indian Slavery, 1750–1834 (Oxford U.P. 1988)
- Wright, Gavin. "Slavery and Anglo‐American capitalism revisited." Economic History Review 73.2 (2020): 353–383. online
- Wyman‐McCarthy, Matthew. "British abolitionism and global empire in the late 18th century: A historiographic overview." History Compass 16.10 (2018): e12480. https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12480
- Zeuske, Michael. "Historiography and Research Problems of Slavery and the Slave Trade in a Global-Historical Perspective." International Review of Social History 57#1 (2012): 87–111.
United States
- ISBN 9780393018875.
- Genovese, Eugene (1974). Roll Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made.
- Horne, Gerald (2014). The Counter-Revolution of 1776: Slave Resistance and the Origins of the United States of America.
- Miller, Randall M., and John David Smith, eds. Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery (1988)
- . D. Appleton and company.
- Rael, Patrick. Eighty-eight years: the long death of slavery in the United States, 1777–1865 (U of Georgia Press, 2015)
- Rodriguez, Junius P, ed. (2007). Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia vol. 2.
- Sinha, Manisha. The slave's cause: A history of abolition (Yale University Press, 2016).
- Wilson, Thomas D. The Ashley Cooper Plan: The Founding of Carolina and the Origins of Southern Political Culture. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2016.
External links
- Digital History – Slavery Facts & Myths
- Teaching resources about Slavery and Abolition on blackhistory4schools.com
- International Slavery Museum. Great Britain.
- The Abolitionist Seminar, summaries, lesson plans, documents and illustrations for schools; focus on United States
- American Abolitionism, summaries and documents; focus on United States