Slavery in the Ottoman Empire
Slavery in the Ottoman Empire was a major institution and a significant part of the Ottoman Empire's economy and traditional society.[1] The main sources of slaves were wars and politically organized enslavement expeditions in the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Southeast Europe, and Africa. It has been reported that the selling price of slaves decreased after large military operations.[2] In Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), the administrative and political center of the Ottoman Empire, about a fifth of the 16th- and 17th-century population consisted of slaves.[3] Statistics of these centuries suggest that Istanbul's additional slave imports from the Black Sea slave trade have totaled around 2.5 million from 1453 to 1700.[4]
Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely unabated into the early 20th century.
A member of the Ottoman slave class, called a kul in Turkish, could achieve high status. Eunuch harem guards and janissaries are some of the better known positions an enslaved person could hold, but enslaved women were actually often supervised by them. However, women played and held the most important roles within the harem institution.[5]
A large percentage of officials in the Ottoman government were bought as slaves,
Early Ottoman slavery
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In the mid-14th century,
Slaves were traded in special marketplaces called "Esir" or "Yesir" that were located in most towns and cities, central to the Ottoman Empire. It is said that Sultan Mehmed II "the Conqueror" established the first Ottoman slave market in Constantinople in the 1460s, probably where the former Byzantine slave market had stood. According to Nicolas de Nicolay, there were slaves of all ages and both sexes, most were displayed naked to be thoroughly checked – especially children and young women – by possible buyers.[11]
Ottoman slavery in Central and Eastern Europe
In the devşirme, which connotes "draft", "blood tax" or "child collection", young Christian boys from the Balkans and Anatolia were taken from their homes and families, forcibly converted to Islam, and enlisted into the most famous branch of the Kapıkulu, the Janissaries, a special soldier class of the Ottoman army that became a decisive faction in the Ottoman invasions of Europe.[citation needed] Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators, and de facto rulers of the Empire, such as Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, were recruited in this way.[12][13] By 1609, the Sultan's Kapıkulu forces increased to about 100,000.[14]
A Hutterite chronicle reports that in 1605, during the Long Turkish War, some 240 Hutterites were abducted from their homes in Upper Hungary by the Ottoman Turkish army and their Tatar allies, and sold into Ottoman slavery.[15][16] Many worked in the palace or for the Sultan personally.
On the basis of a list of estates belonging to members of the ruling class kept in Edirne between 1545 and 1659, the following data was collected: out of 93 estates, 41 had slaves.[14] The total number of slaves in the estates was 140; 54 female and 86 male. 134 of them bore Muslim names, 5 were not defined, and 1 was a Christian woman. Some of these slaves appear to have been employed on farms.[14] In conclusion, the ruling class, because of extensive use of warrior slaves and because of its own high purchasing capacity, was undoubtedly the single major group keeping the slave market alive in the Ottoman Empire.[14]
Rural slavery was largely a phenomenon endemic to the
The
Prices and taxes
A study of the slave market of Ottoman Crete produces details about the prices of slaves. Factors such as age, race, virginity etc. significantly influenced prices. The most expensive slaves were those between 10 and 35 years of age, with the highest prices for European virgin girls 13–25 years of age and teenaged boys. The cheaper slaves were those with disabilities and sub-Saharan Africans. Prices in Crete ranged between 65 and 150 "esedi guruş" (see Kuruş). But even the lowest prices were affordable to only high income persons. For example, in 1717 a 12-year-old boy with mental disabilities was sold for 27 guruş, an amount that could buy in the same year 462 kg (1,019 lb) of lamb meat, 933 kg (2,057 lb) of bread or 1,385 L (366 US gal) of milk. In 1671 a female slave was sold in Crete for 350 guruş, while at the same time the value of a large two-floor house with a garden in Chania was 300 guruş. There were various taxes to be paid on the importation and selling of slaves. One of them was the "pençik" or "penç-yek" tax, literally meaning "one fifth". This taxation was based on verses of the Quran, according to which one fifth of the spoils of war belonged to God, to the Prophet and his family, to orphans, to those in need and to travelers. The Ottomans probably started collecting pençik at the time of Sultan Murad I (1362–1389). Pençik was collected both in money and in kind, the latter including slaves as well. Tax was not collected in some cases of war captives. With war captives, slaves were given to soldiers and officers as a motive to participate in war.[2]
The recapture of runaway slaves was a job for private individuals called "yavacis". Whoever managed to find a runaway enslaved person seeking their freedom would collect a fee of "good news" from the yavaci and the latter took this fee plus other expenses from the slaves' master. Slaves could also be rented, inherited, pawned, exchanged or given as gifts.[2][24]
Barbary slave raids
For centuries, large vessels on the Mediterranean relied on European
Zanj slaves
As there were restrictions on the enslavement of Muslims and of "People of the Book" (Jews and Christians) living under Muslim rule, pagan areas in Africa became a popular source of slaves. Known as the Zanj (Bantu[29]), these slaves originated mainly from the African Great Lakes region as well as from Central Africa.[30] The Zanj were employed in households, on plantations and in the army as slave-soldiers. Some could ascend to become high-rank officials, but in general Zanj were considered inferior to European and Caucasian slaves.[31][32][need quotation to verify]
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One way for Zanj slaves to serve in high-ranking roles involved becoming one of the African
After being purchased by a member of the
Although Mullah Ali was often challenged because of his blackness and his connection to the African eunuchs, he was able to defend himself through his powerful network of support and his own intellectual productions. As a prominent scholar, he wrote an influential book in which he used logic and the Quran to debunk stereotypes and prejudice against dark-skinned people and to delegitimize arguments for why Africans should be slaves.[38] Today, thousands of
East African slaves
The Upper
Slaves in the Imperial Harem
Very little is actually known about the Imperial Harem, and much of what is thought to be known is actually conjecture and imagination.[45] There are two main reasons for the lack of accurate accounts on this subject. The first was the barrier imposed by the people of the Ottoman society – the Ottoman people did not know much about the machinations of the Imperial Harem themselves, due to it being physically impenetrable, and because the silence of insiders was enforced.[45] The second was that any accounts from this period were from European travelers, who were both not privy to the information, and also further distanced from the inner workings of the Royal Harem by virtue of being non-Muslim (kafir) foreigners.[45] Despite this, scandalous stories of the Imperial Harem, and the sexual practices of the sultans there-in were popular, whether they originated from sensationalist claims or uncomfortable truths. Ibrahim bin Ahmed, successor to Murad IV, inherited the throne in 1640 and famously squandered public funds to conduct massive orgies in the palace with such frequency- lurid stories of the sexual excesses of the sultanate became emblematic of dynastic life throughout the seventeenth century.[45]
However, European accounts from captives who served as pages in the imperial palace, and the reports, dispatches, and letters of ambassadors resident in Istanbul, their secretaries, and other members of their suites offered more reliable insight than other, often religiously motivated European sources.[45] And further, of this group, the writings of the Venetians in the sixteenth century are considered especially extensive in volume, comprehensiveness, sophistication, and accuracy.[45]
The
The concubines were guarded by enslaved
The eunuch boys were then sold in the Ottoman Empire. According to Spooner, the majority of Ottoman eunuchs endured castration at the hands of the Copts at Abou Gerbe monastery.[50] Boys were captured from the African Great Lakes region and other areas in Sudan like Darfur and Kordofan, enslaved, then sold to customers in Egypt.[30][48]
While the majority of eunuchs came from Africa, most white eunuchs were selected from the
Ottoman sexual slavery
In the Ottoman empire, female slaves owned by men were sexually available to their masters, and their children, if aknowledged by their owners, were considered as legitimate as any child born of a free woman. This means that any child of a female slave could not be sold or given away. However female slaves owned by women could not be available to their masters' husband by law.
Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries,
Some female slaves who were enslaved by women were sold as sex workers for short periods of time.[52] Women also purchased slaves, but usually not for sexual purposes, and most likely searched for slaves who were loyal, healthy, and had good domestic skills. Beauty was also a valued trait when looking to buy a slave because they often were seen as objects to show off to people.[57] While prostitution was against the law, there were very little recorded instances of punishment that came to shari'a courts for pimps, prostitutes, or for the people who sought out their services. Cases that did punish prostitution usually resulted in the expulsion of the prostitute or pimp from the area they were in. However, this does not mean that these people were always receiving light punishments. Sometimes military officials took it upon themselves to enforce extra judicial punishment. This involved pimps being strung up on trees, destruction of brothels, and harassing prostitutes.[58]
The Ottoman Imperial Harem was similar to a training institution for concubines, and served as a way to get closer to the Ottoman elite.[45] Women from lower-class families had especially good opportunities for social mobility in the imperial harem because they could be trained to be concubines for high-ranking military officials.[45] Concubines had an chance for even greater power in Ottoman society if they became favorites of the sultan.[45] The sultan would keep a large number of girls as his concubines in the New Palace, which as a result became known as "the palace of the girls" in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[45] These concubines mainly consisted of young Christian slave girls. Accounts claim that the sultan would keep a concubine in the New Palace for a period of two months, during which time he would do with her as he pleased.[45] They would be considered eligible for the sultan's sexual attention until they became pregnant; if a concubine became pregnant, the sultan may take her as a wife and move her to the Old Palace where they would prepare for the royal child; if she did not become pregnant by the end of the two months, she would be married off to one of the sultan's high-ranking military men.[45] If a concubine became pregnant and gave birth to a daughter, she may still be considered for further sexual attention from the sultan.[45] The harem system was an important part of Ottoman-Egyptian society as well; it attempted to mimic the imperial harem in many ways, including the secrecy of the harem section of the household, where the women were kept hidden away from males that were outside of their own family, the guarding of the women by black eunuchs, and also having the function of training for becoming concubines.[53]
Decline and suppression of Ottoman slavery
Responding to the influence and pressure of European countries in the 19th century, the Empire began taking steps to curtail the slave trade, which had been legally valid under Ottoman law since the beginning of the empire. One of the important campaigns against Ottoman slavery and slave trade was conducted in the Caucasus by the Russian authorities.[59]
A series of decrees were promulgated that initially limited the slavery of white persons, and subsequently that of all races and religions. In 1830, a firman of Sultan Mahmud II gave freedom to white slaves. This category included Circassians, who had the custom of selling their own children, enslaved Greeks who had revolted against the Empire in 1821, and some others.[60] Attempting to suppress the practice, another firman abolishing the trade of Circassians and Georgians was issued in October 1854.[61] However, in March 1858 the Ottoman Governor of
Later, slave trafficking was prohibited in practice by enforcing specific conditions of slavery in sharia, Islamic law, even though sharia permitted slavery in principle. For example, under one provision, a person who was captured could not be kept a slave if they had already been Muslim prior to their capture. Moreover, they could not be captured legitimately without a formal declaration of war, and only the Sultan could make such a declaration. As late Ottoman Sultans wished to halt slavery, they did not authorize raids for the purpose of capturing slaves, and thereby made it effectively illegal to procure new slaves, although those already in slavery remained slaves.[63][64] In November 1874, the British Embassy discussed the increase of slave trafficking in northern Africa with the Ottoman government, with the aims of implementing measures to limit the trade of slaves.[65] Even then, however, the British neglected to secure the right to prevent the transportation of enslaved people across the Mediterranean (for example, from North Africa to İstanbul.)[66]
The Ottoman Empire and 16 other countries signed the 1890
An instruction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs to the
The Young Turks adopted an anti-slavery stance in the early 20th century.[69] Sultan Abdul Hamid II's personal slaves were freed in 1909 but members of his dynasty were allowed to keep their slaves. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk ended legal slavery in the Turkish Republic. Turkey waited until 1933 to ratify the 1926 League of Nations convention on the suppression of slavery. Nonetheless, illegal sales of girls were reportedly continued at least into the early 1930s. Legislation explicitly prohibiting slavery was finally adopted in 1964.[70]
See also
- Islamic views on slavery
- History of concubinage in the Muslim world
- History of slavery
- History of slavery in the Muslim world
- Slavery and religion
References
Footnotes
- ^ "Making of Ottoman court eunuchs makes clear that white eunuchs could be recruited among devshirme boys, with the pages and their eunuch supervisors coming from the same background. They were sometimes castrated in the palace, whereas the harem's black eunuchs were more often castrated in their region of origin."[51]
Citations
- ^ "Supply of Slaves". Archived from the original on 2017-05-04. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
- ^ a b c Spyropoulos Yannis, Slaves and freedmen in 17th- and early 18th-century Ottoman Crete, Turcica, 46, 2015, p. 181, 182.
- ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History.
- ^ The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3, AD 1420–AD 1804
- ^ a b Keddie 2012
- ^ Fisher 1980.
- ^ Dursteler 2006, p. 72
- ^ a b Zilfi 2010, p. 74-75, 115, 186-188, 191-192.
- ^ Clarence-Smith 2020.
- ^ "BBC - Religions - Islam: Slavery in Islam". Retrieved 2018-10-03.
- ^ Fisher, Alan W. (1978). "The sale of slaves in the Ottoman Empire" (PDF). Beşeri Bilimler (Humanities). 6. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "Internet History Sourcebooks Project". sourcebooks.fordham.edu.
- ^ "Schonwalder.com". schonwalder.com. Archived from the original on 2006-10-18. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
- ^ a b c d "In the Service of the State and Military Class". Archived from the original on 2009-09-11. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
- ^ John A. Hostetler: Hutterite Society, Baltimore 1974, page 63.
- ^ Johannes Waldner: Das Klein-Geschichtsbuch der Hutterischen Brüder, Philadelphia, 1947, page 203.
- ^ ""Horrible Traffic in Circassian Women—Infanticide in Turkey," New York Daily Times, August 6, 1856". chnm.gmu.edu.
- ^ "Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Kölelik". Archived from the original on February 21, 2006. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ Yermolenko 2010, p. 111.
- ^ "Avalanche Press". www.avalanchepress.com.
- ^ Glaz, Danaher & Lozowski 2013, p. 289.
- ^ "Slavery – Slave societies". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ a b Brian L. Davies (2014). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe. pp. 15–26. Routledge.
- ^ For slaves offered as gifts to the sultan and other high-rank officials, see Reindl-Kiel, Hedda. Power and Submission: Gifting at Royal Circumcision Festivals in the Ottoman Empire (16th-18th Centuries). Turcica, Vol.41, 2009, p. 53.
- ^ "When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed". Archived from the original on July 25, 2011.
- ^ "BBC - History - British History in depth: British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". www.bbc.co.uk.
- ^ Milton, G. (2005). White gold: the extraordinary story of Thomas Pellow and Islam's one million white slaves. Macmillan.
- ^ Maddison, A. (2007). Contours of the world economy 1–2030 AD: Essays in macro-economic history. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Khalid, Abdallah (1977). The Liberation of Swahili from European Appropriation. East African Literature Bureau. p. 38. Retrieved 10 June 2014.
- ^ a b Tinker 2012, p. 9.
- ^ a b Zilfi 2010
- ISBN 9783447058995– via Google Books.
- ^ Lewis 1990, p. 76.
- ^ Tezcan 2007b, p. 177.
- ^ a b c Tezcan 2007a
- ^ Tezcan 2010, p. 103.
- ^ Artan 2015, p. 378.
- ^ Bowering, Crone & Kadi 2013.
- ^ "Afro-Turks meet to celebrate Obama inauguration". Today's Zaman. Todayszaman.com. 20 January 2009. Archived from the original on 18 February 2009. Retrieved 22 January 2009.
- ^ "Esmeray: the untold story of an Afro-Turk music star". The National. thenational.ae. 22 March 2016. Retrieved 22 March 2016.
- ^ Segal 2001, p. 60.
- ^ Gordon 1998, p. 173.
- ^ Doughty 1953.
- ^ Kemball 1856.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Peirce 1993
- ^ See generally Jay Winik (2007), The Great Upheaval.
- ^ Ayşe Özakbaş, Hürrem Sultan, Tarih Dergisi, Sayı 36, 2000 Archived 2012-01-13 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Gwyn Campbell, The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia, 1 edition, (Routledge: 2003), p.ix
- ^ See Winik, supra.
- ^ a b Henry G. Spooner (1919). The American Journal of Urology and Sexology, Volume 15. The Grafton Press. p. 522. Retrieved 2011-01-11.
- ^ Duindam 2016.
- ^ a b Andrews 2005, p. 47.
- ^ a b c Shihade 2007
- ^ a b c d e Karamursel 2016
- ^ a b c d Von Schierbrand, Wolf (March 28, 1886). "Slaves sold to the Turk; How the vile traffic is still carried on in the East. Sights our correspondent saw for twenty dollars--in the house of a grand old Turk of a dealer" (PDF). The New York Times. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
- ^ a b Andrews 2005, p. 1–31.
- ^ Ben-Naeh 2006.
- ^ Baldwin 2012.
- ^ L.Kurtynova-d'Herlugnan, The Tsar's Abolitionists, Leiden, Brill, 2010
- ^ a b c George Young, Turkey (27 October 2017). "Corps de droit ottoman: recueil des codes, lois, règlements, ordonnances et …". The Clarendon Press – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Badem, C. (2017). The Ottoman Crimean War (1853-1856). Brill. p353-356
- ^ Toledano, Ehud R. (1998). Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East. University of Washington Press. p. 31-32
- ^ "Slavery in the Ottoman Empire".
- ^ See also the seminal writing on the subject by Egyptian Ottoman Ahmad Shafiq Pasha, who wrote the highly influential book "L'Esclavage au Point de vue Musulman." ("Slavery from a Muslim Perspective").
- ^ "News in Brief". The Times of London. November 2, 1874.
- S2CID 159756171.
- ^ a b "Ambassador Morgenthau's Story. 1918. Chapter Twenty-Four". www.gwpda.org.
- ^ Eltringham & Maclean 2014.
- ^ Erdem 1996, p. 149.
- ^ Clarence-Smith 2020, p. 110.
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- Bowering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Kadi, Wadad, eds. (2013). "Racism". The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 455. ISBN 9780691134840.
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Further reading
- Walz, Terence; Cuno, Kenneth M., eds. (2010). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: Histories of Trans-Saharan Africans in Nineteenth-century Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Mediterranean. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9789774163982.
- Toledano, Ehud R. (1998). Slavery and abolition in the Ottoman Middle East. ISBN 9780295802428.
- Toledano, Ehud R. (2007). As If Silent and Absent: Bonds of Enslavement in the Islamic Middle East. Yale University Press.
External links
- Media related to Slavery in the Ottoman Empire at Wikimedia Commons