Soap

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A handmade soap bar
Two equivalent images of the chemical structure of sodium stearate, a typical ingredient found in bar soaps
The chemical structure of sodium laureth sulfate, a typical ingredient found in liquid soaps
Emulsifying action of soap on oil

Soap is a

catalysts
.

When used for cleaning, soap

emulsifies oils, enabling them to be carried away by running water.[2]

Soap is created by mixing fats and oils with a base.[3] Humans have used soap for millennia; evidence exists for the production of soap-like materials in ancient Babylon around 2800 BC.

History

Ancient Middle East

Box for Amigo del Obrero (Worker's Friend) soap from the 20th century, part of the Museo del Objeto del Objeto collection

It is uncertain as to who was the first to invent soap.[4] The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon.[5] A formula for making soap was written on a Sumerian clay tablet around 2500 BC; the soap was produced by heating a mixture of oil and wood ash, the earliest recorded chemical reaction, and used for washing woolen clothing.[6]

The

soda ash substance called trona to create their soaps.[6] Egyptian documents mention a similar substance was used in the preparation of wool for weaving.[citation needed
]

In the reign of Nabonidus (556–539 BC), a recipe for soap consisted of uhulu [ashes], cypress [oil] and sesame [seed oil] "for washing the stones for the servant girls".[7]

In the Southern

germander
, etc.

Roman Empire

Pliny the Elder, whose writings chronicle life in the first century AD, describes soap as "an invention of the Gauls".[11] The word sapo, Latin for soap, likely was borrowed from an early Germanic language and is

scrofulous sores, as well as among the Gauls as a dye to redden hair which the men in Germania were more likely to use than women.[13][14] The Romans avoided washing with harsh soaps before encountering the milder soaps used by the Gauls around 58 BC.[15] Aretaeus of Cappadocia, writing in the 2nd century AD, observes among "Celts, which are men called Gauls, those alkaline substances that are made into balls [...] called soap".[16] The Romans' preferred method of cleaning the body was to massage oil into the skin and then scrape away both the oil and any dirt with a strigil.[17] The standard design is a curved blade with a handle, all of which is made of metal.[18]

The 2nd-century AD physician Galen describes soap-making using lye and prescribes washing to carry away impurities from the body and clothes. The use of soap for personal cleanliness became increasingly common in this period. According to Galen, the best soaps were Germanic, and soaps from Gaul were second best. Zosimos of Panopolis, circa 300 AD, describes soap and soapmaking.[19]

Ancient China

A detergent similar to soap was manufactured in ancient China from the seeds of Gleditsia sinensis.[20] Another traditional detergent is a mixture of pig pancreas and plant ash called zhuyizi (simplified Chinese: 猪胰子; traditional Chinese: 豬胰子; pinyin: zhūyízǐ). Soap made of animal fat did not appear in China until the modern era.[21] Soap-like detergents were not as popular as ointments and creams.[20]

Islamic Golden Age

Hard toilet soap with a pleasant smell was produced in the

fatty oils and fats with alkali. In Syria, soap was produced using olive oil together with alkali and lime. Soap was exported from Syria to other parts of the Muslim world and to Europe.[22]

A 12th-century document describes the process of soap production.[23] It mentions the key ingredient, alkali, which later became crucial to modern chemistry, derived from al-qaly or "ashes".

By the 13th century, the manufacture of soap in the Middle East had become a major cottage industry, with sources in

]

Medieval Europe

Marseille soap in blocks of 600 g

Soapmakers in

Medieval Spain were a leading soapmaker by 800, and soapmaking began in the Kingdom of England about 1200.[26] Soapmaking is mentioned both as "women's work" and as the produce of "good workmen" alongside other necessities, such as the produce of carpenters, blacksmiths, and bakers.[27]

In Europe, soap in the 9th century was produced from animal fats and had an unpleasant smell. This changed when olive oil began to be used in soap formulas instead, after which much of Europe's soap production moved to the Mediterranean olive-growing regions.[28] Hard toilet soap was introduced to Europe by Arabs and gradually spread as a luxury item. It was often perfumed.[22][28] By the 15th century, the manufacture of soap in the Christendom had become virtually industrialized, with sources in Antwerp, Castile, Marseille, Naples and Venice.[25]

15th–18th century

In France, by the second half of the 15th century, the semi-industrialized professional manufacture of soap was concentrated in a few centers of ProvenceToulon, Hyères, and Marseille—which supplied the rest of France.[29] In Marseilles, by 1525, production was concentrated in at least two factories, and soap production at Marseille tended to eclipse the other Provençal centers.[30] English manufacture tended to concentrate in London.[31]

Finer soaps were later produced in Europe from the 16th century, using vegetable oils (such as olive oil) as opposed to animal fats. Many of these soaps are still produced, both industrially and by small-scale artisans. Castile soap is a popular example of the vegetable-only soaps derived from the oldest "white soap" of Italy. In 1634 Charles I granted the newly formed Society of Soapmakers a monopoly in soap production who produced certificates from 'foure Countesses, and five Viscountesses, and divers other Ladies and Gentlewomen of great credite and quality, besides common Laundresses and others', testifying that 'the New White Soap washeth whiter and sweeter than the Old Soap'.[32]

During the Restoration era (February 1665 – August 1714) a soap tax was introduced in England, which meant that until the mid-1800s, soap was a luxury, used regularly only by the well-to-do. The soap manufacturing process was closely supervised by revenue officials who made sure that soapmakers' equipment was kept under lock and key when not being supervised. Moreover, soap could not be produced by small makers because of a law that stipulated that soap boilers must manufacture a minimum quantity of one imperial ton at each boiling, which placed the process beyond the reach of the average person. The soap trade was boosted and deregulated when the tax was repealed in 1853.[33][34][35]

Industrially manufactured bar soaps became available in the late 18th century, as advertising campaigns in Europe and America promoted popular awareness of the relationship between cleanliness and health.

microorganisms.[37]

  • Advertising for Dobbins' medicated toilet soap
    Advertising for Dobbins' medicated toilet soap
  • A 1922 magazine advertisement for Palmolive Soap
    A 1922 magazine advertisement for Palmolive Soap
  • Liquid soap
    Liquid soap

19th century

Caricature of Lillie Langtry, from Punch, Christmas 1890: The soap box on which she sits reflects her endorsements of cosmetics and soaps.

Until the

common salt.[15] Andrew Pears started making a high-quality, transparent soap, Pears soap, in 1807 in London.[38] His son-in-law, Thomas J. Barratt, became the brand manager (the first of its kind) for Pears in 1865.[39] In 1882, Barratt recruited English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become the poster-girl for Pears soap, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.[40][41]

James, bought a small soap works in Warrington in 1886 and founded what is still one of the largest soap businesses, formerly called Lever Brothers and now called Unilever. These soap businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising
campaigns.

Liquid soap

A soap dispenser

Liquid soap was not invented until the nineteenth century; in 1865, William Sheppard patented a liquid version of soap.

Palmolive" brand soap that same year.[43] This new brand of soap became popular rapidly, and to such a degree that B.J. Johnson Soap Company changed its name to Palmolive.[44]

In the early 1900s, other companies began to develop their own liquid soaps. Such products as Pine-Sol and Tide appeared on the market, making the process of cleaning things other than skin, such as clothing, floors, and bathrooms, much easier.

Liquid soap also works better for more traditional or non-machine washing methods, such as using a washboard.[45]

Types

A collection of decorative bar soaps, as often found in hotels

Since they are salts of fatty acids, soaps have the general formula (

nonanoate is an ammonium-based soap that is used as an herbicide.[47]

When used in

stearate, a common ingredient in soap, forms as an insoluble precipitate.[48]

Non-toilet soaps

Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases and thickeners. Greases are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap and mineral oil. Many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures thereof. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils. In ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil.[49]

Metal soaps are also included in modern artists' oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier.[50]

Production of metallic soaps

Most metal soaps are prepared by hydrolysis:

2 RCO2
H2O

Toilet soaps

In a domestic setting, "soap" usually refers to what is technically called a toilet soap, used for household and personal cleaning.[51] When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes particles and fats/oils, which can then be separated from the article being cleaned. The insoluble oil/fat molecules become associated inside micelles, tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar hydrophilic (water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-attracting) pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water making them soluble. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water.

Structure of a micelle, a cell-like structure formed by the aggregation of soap subunits (such as sodium stearate): The exterior of the micelle is hydrophilic (attracted to water) and the interior is lipophilic (attracted to oils).

Production of toilet soaps

The production of toilet soaps usually entails saponification of triglycerides, which are vegetable or animal oils and fats. An alkaline solution (often lye or sodium hydroxide) induces saponification whereby the triglyceride fats first hydrolyze into salts of fatty acids. Glycerol (glycerin) is liberated. The glycerin can remain in the soap product as a softening agent, although it is sometimes separated.[52]

The type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, derived from potassium hydroxide, are softer or often liquid. Historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard. These are used exclusively in greases.

For making toilet soaps,

glycerin. Tallow, i.e., rendered fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals. Each species offers quite different fatty acid content, resulting in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap made from pure olive oil, sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap
, is reputed for its particular mildness. The term "Castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps from a mixture of oils, but a high percentage of olive oil.

Fatty acid content of various fats used for soapmaking
Lauric acid Myristic acid Palmitic acid Stearic acid Oleic acid Linoleic acid Linolenic acid
fats C12 saturated C14 saturated C16 saturated C18 saturated C18 monounsaturated C18 diunsaturated C18 triunsaturated
Tallow 0 4 28 23 35 2 1
Coconut oil 48 18 9 3 7 2 0
Palm kernel oil 46 16 8 3 12 2 0
Palm oil 0 1 44 4 37 9 0
Laurel oil 54 0 0 0 15 17 0
Olive oil 0 0 11 2 78 10 0
Canola oil
0 1 3 2 58 9 23

Soap-making for hobbyists

Manufacturing process of soaps/detergents

A variety of methods are available for hobbyists to make soap.[54] Most soapmakers use processes where the glycerol remains in the product, and the saponification continues for many days after the soap is poured into molds. The glycerol is left during the hot process method, but at the high temperature employed, the reaction is practically completed in the kettle, before the soap is poured into molds. This simple and quick process is employed in small factories all over the world.

Handmade soap from the cold process also differs from industrially made soap in that an excess of fat or (Coconut Oil, Cazumbal Process) are used, beyond that needed to consume the alkali (in a cold-pour process, this excess fat is called "superfatting"), and the glycerol left in acts as a moisturizing agent. However, the glycerine also makes the soap softer. The addition of glycerol and processing of this soap produces glycerin soap. Superfatted soap is more skin-friendly than one without extra fat, although it can leave a "greasy" feel. Sometimes, an emollient is added, such as jojoba oil or shea butter.[55] Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap. The scouring agents serve to remove dead cells from the skin surface being cleaned. This process is called exfoliation.

To make

antibacterial soap, compounds such as triclosan or triclocarban can be added. There is some concern that use of antibacterial soaps and other products might encourage antimicrobial resistance in microorganisms.[56]

Gallery

See also

Types of soap

Soap-related

References

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  2. ^ "What's The Difference Between Soap and Detergent". cleancult.com. Archived from the original on 2019-12-18. Retrieved 2019-12-18.
  3. .
  4. from the original on 2016-08-20. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BCE in ancient Babylon.
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  12. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, XXVIII.191.
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  22. ^ BBC Science and Islam Part 2, Jim Al-Khalili. BBC Productions. Accessed 30 January 2012.
  23. .
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  32. ^ "Repeal of the Soap Tax". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). 3 April 1838. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
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  40. ^ US patent 49561, Sheppard, William, "Improved liquid soap", issued 1865-08-22 
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  49. PMID 33922037
    . Modern toilet soaps and detergents trace their origin to the ancient use of plants, commonly referred to as soapy plants, which possess foaming ability when they are agitated in water.
  50. .
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Further reading

External links

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