Social democracy

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This article is about the politicale within the socialist movement. For socialism emphasizing democracy sometimes described as social democracy, see Democratic socialism. For the policy regime in Northern Europe sometimes described as social democracy, see Nordic model. For the social welfare model in Western Europe, see Social market economy.
See also: Social Democrats (disambiguation), Social Democratic Party, and List of social democratic parties.

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Social democracy is a

social liberal framework.[clarification needed][2] In practice, social democracy takes a form of socially managed welfare capitalism, achieved with partial public ownership, economic interventionism, and policies promoting social equality.[3]

Social democracy maintains a commitment to

regulating the economy in the public interest.[6]

Social democracy has a strong, long-standing connection with

stakeholders.[7]

The

social liberalism, and welfare states.[10]

Social democracy has been described as the most common form of Western or modern socialism,

private property ownership.[14] Nevertheless, the distinction remains blurred[15]
and the term is commonly used synonymously.

The

economically liberal with social democratic economic policies and center-left social policies. It is a reconceptualization of social democracy developed in the 1990s and embraced by some social democratic parties; some analysts have characterized the Third Way as part of the neoliberal movement.[16]

Definitions

As a tradition of socialism

Social democracy is defined as one of many

reformist socialism of Ferdinand Lassalle and the internationalist revolutionary socialism advanced by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.[19] Social democracy has undergone various major forms throughout its history.[20] In the 19th century, it encompassed various non-revolutionary and revolutionary currents of socialism, excluding anarchism.[21] In one of the first scholarly works on European socialism written for an American audience, Richard T. Ely's 1883 book French and German Socialism in Modern Times, social democrats were characterized as "the extreme wing of the socialists" who were "inclined to lay so much stress on equality of enjoyment, regardless of the value of one's labor, that they might, perhaps, more properly be called communists".[22] In the early 20th century, social democracy came to refer to support for a process of developing society through existing political structures and opposition to revolutionary means, which are often associated with Marxism.[23] Thus whereas in the 19th century, social democracy could be described as "organized Marxism", it became "organized reformism" by the 20th century.[24]

In political science, democratic socialism and social democracy are sometimes seen as synonyms,

socialist economy through the institutions of liberal democracy.[23] Starting in the post-war period, social democracy was defined as a policy regime advocating the reformation of capitalism to align it with the ethical ideals of social justice.[30]

What

private ownership of the means of production.[31]

Social democracy or social democratic remains controversial among socialists.

Marxist faction and non-communist socialists or the right-wing of socialism during the split with communism.[29] Others have noted its pejorative use among communists and other socialists. According to Lyman Tower Sargent, "socialism refers to social theories rather than to theories oriented to the individual. Because many communists now call themselves democratic socialists, it is sometimes difficult to know what a political label really means. As a result, social democratic has become a common new label for democratic socialist political parties."[34]

As a policy regime

As a policy regime,[35] social democracy entails support for a mixed economy and ameliorative measures to benefit the working class within the framework of democratic capitalism.[36] Social democracy currently depicts a chiefly capitalist economy with state economic regulation in the general interest, state provision of welfare services and state redistribution of income and wealth. Social democratic concepts influence the policies of most Western states since World War 2.[37] Social democracy is frequently considered a practical middle course between capitalism and socialism. Social democracy aims to use democratic collective action for promoting freedom and equality in the economy and opposes what is seen as inequality and oppression that laissez-faire capitalism causes.[38]

In the 21st century, it has become commonplace to define social democracy in reference to Northern and Western European countries,

corporatist system of collective bargaining.[40] Social democracy has also been used synonymously with the Nordic model.[41] Henning Meyer and Jonathan Rutherford associate social democracy with the socioeconomic order in Europe from the post-war period until the early 1990s.[42] Social democratic roots are also observed in Latin America during the early 20th century; this was the case in Uruguay during the two presidential terms of José Batlle y Ordóñez.[43]

While the welfare state has been accepted across the political spectrum,

social liberals),[44] one notable difference is that socialists see the welfare state "not merely to provide benefits but to build the foundation for emancipation and self-determination".[45] In the 21st century, a social democratic policy regime[nb 3] may further be distinguished by a support for an increase in welfare policies or an increase in public services.[41]

Some distinguish between ideological social democracy as part of the broad socialist movement and social democracy as a policy regime. They call the first classical social democracy or classical socialism,[46] and the latter as competitive socialism,[47] liberal socialism,[48] neo-social democracy,[49] or new social democracy.[50]

As a name for political parties

Many socialist parties in several countries have been, or are called Social Democratic. In the 19th century, social democrat was a broad catch-all for international socialists owing their primary ideological allegiance to Lassalle or Marx, in contrast to those advocating various forms of

Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917, when Communist came into vogue for individuals and organizations espousing a revolutionary road to socialism.[51][nb 4]

In the 20th century, the term came to be associated with the positions of the German and Swedish parties. The first advocated

post-capitalist order[57] or, in more ethical terms, as a just society, described as representing democratic socialism,[58] without any explicit reference to the economic system or its structure.[59] Parties such as the Social Democratic Party of Germany and the Swedish Social Democratic Party[nb 6] describe their goal as developing democratic socialism,[61] with social democracy as the principle of action.[62] In the 21st century, European social democratic parties represent the centre-left and most are part of the Party of European Socialists, while democratic socialist parties are to their left within the Party of the European Left. Many of those social democratic parties are members of the Socialist International, including several democratic socialist parties, whose Frankfurt Declaration declares the goal of developing democratic socialism.[33] Others are also part of the Progressive Alliance, founded in 2013 by most contemporary or former member parties of the Socialist International.[63]

As Marxist revisionism

Social democracy has been seen as a revision of

government intervention and regulations.[73]

Philosophy

As a form of reformist democratic socialism,[12] social democracy rejects the either/or interpretation of capitalism versus socialism.[74] It claims that fostering a progressive evolution of capitalism will gradually result in the evolution of a capitalist economy into a socialist economy.[75] All citizens should be legally entitled to certain social rights: universal access to public services such as education, health care, workers' compensation, and other services, including child care and care for the elderly.[5] Social democrats advocate freedom from discrimination based on differences in ability/disability, age, ethnicity, gender, language, race, religion, sexual orientation, and social class.[76]

A portrait highlighting the five leaders of early social democracy in Germany[nb 7]

Later in their life,

Fabian movement in Britain,[83] Bernstein advocated a similar evolutionary approach to socialist politics that he termed evolutionary socialism.[84] Evolutionary means include representative democracy and cooperation between people regardless of class. Bernstein accepted the Marxist analysis that the creation of socialism is interconnected with the evolution of capitalism.[81]

private enterprises, and it would be necessary for an extended period before private enterprises evolve of their own accord into cooperative enterprises.[88] Bernstein supported state ownership only for certain parts of the economy that the state could best manage and rejected a mass scale of state ownership as being too burdensome to be manageable.[81] Bernstein was an advocate of Kantian socialism and neo-Kantianism.[89] Although unpopular early on, his views became mainstream after World War I.[90]

In The Future of Socialism (1956), Anthony Crosland argued that "traditional capitalism has been reformed and modified almost out of existence, and it is with a quite different form of society that socialists must now concern themselves. Pre-war anti-capitalism will give us very little help", for a new kind of capitalism required a new kind of socialism. Crosland believed that these features of reformed managerial capitalism were irreversible, but it has been argued within the Labour Party and by others that Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan brought about its reversal in the 1970s and 1980s. Although the post-war consensus represented a period where social democracy was "most buoyant", it has been argued that "post-war social democracy had been altogether too confident in its analysis" because "gains which were thought to be permanent turned out to be conditional and as the reservoir of capitalist growth showed signs of drying up".[91] In Socialism Now (1974), Crosland argued that "[m]uch more should have been achieved by a Labour Government in office and Labour pressure in opposition. Against the dogged resistance to change, we should have pitted a stronger will to change. I conclude that a move to the Left is needed".[92]

In Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared, Vít Hloušek and Lubomír Kopecek explain how socialist parties have evolved from the 19th to the early 21st centuries. As the number of people in traditional working-class occupations such as factory workers and miners declined, socialists have successfully widened their appeal to the middle class by diluting their ideology;[93] however, there is still continuity between parties such as the SPD, the Labour Party in Britain, and other socialist parties which remain part of the same famille spirituelle, or ideological party family, as outlined by most political scientists.[94] For many social democrats, Marxism is loosely held to be valuable for its emphasis on changing the world for a more just, better future.[95]

History

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During the late 19th century and the early 20th century, social democracy was a broad labour movement within socialism that aimed to replace

means of production, distribution and exchange, taking influence from both Marxism and the supporters of Ferdinand Lassalle.[96] By 1868–1869, the socialism associated with Karl Marx had become the official theoretical basis of the first social democratic party established in Europe, the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany.[97] In the early 20th century, the German social democratic politician Eduard Bernstein rejected orthodox Marxist ideas about the inevitable progression of history and the need for revolution, advancing instead the position that socialism should be grounded in ethical and moral arguments and achieved through gradual legislative reform.[80]
Bernstein's ideas were initially not well received; his party maintained the position that reforms should be pursued only as a means to an eventual revolution, not as a substitute for it. Yet, Bernstein's ideas would have growing influence, particularly after the First World War

The

German Revolution of 1919,[100] in which the Communists wanted to overthrow the German government and establish a soviet republic like Russia, while the Social Democrats wanted to preserve it as what came to be known as the Weimar Republic.[101] Thus social democracy went from a "Marxist revolutionary" doctrine into a form of "moderate parliamentary socialism".[102]

The Bolsheviks split from the Second International and created their own separate Communist International (Comintern) in 1919 that sought to rally revolutionary social democrats together for socialist revolution. With this split, the reformists founded the Labour and Socialist International (LSI) in 1923. The LSI had a history of rivalry with the Comintern, with which it competed over the leadership of the international socialist and labour movement.[103]

During the 1920s and 1930s, social democracy became dominant in the socialist movement, mainly associated with reformist socialism while

nationalist sentiments while rejecting the economic and technological determinism generally characteristic of orthodox Marxism and economic liberalism.[108]

By the post-World War II period and its economic consensus and expansion, most social democrats in Europe had abandoned their ideological connection to orthodox Marxism. They shifted their emphasis toward social policy reform as a compromise between capitalism to socialism.[109] According to Michael Harrington, the primary reason for this was the perspective that viewed the Stalinist-era Soviet Union as having succeeded in usurping the legacy of Marxism and distorting it in propaganda to justify totalitarianism.[110] In its foundation, the Socialist International denounced the Bolshevik-inspired communist movement, "for [it] falsely claims a share in the Socialist tradition".[111] Furthermore, core tenets of Marxism have been regarded by social democrats as having become obsolete, including the prediction that the working class was the decisive class with the development of capitalism. In their view, this did not materialize in the aftermath of mass industrialization during World War II.[110]

In Britain, the social democratic

public ownership and nationalization were not explicitly rejected but were seen as merely one of numerous useful devices.[112] According to social democratic modernizers like Blair, nationalization policies had become politically unviable by the 1990s.[118]

During the

free-market and laissez-faire variations of capitalism, was a more immediate concern.[119] The Third Way stands for a modernized social democracy,[120] but the social democracy that remained committed to the gradual abolition of capitalism and social democrats opposed to the Third Way merged into democratic socialism.[121] Although social democracy originated as a revolutionary socialist or communist movement,[52] one distinction between democratic socialism and social democracy is that the former can include revolutionary means.[122] The latter proposes representative democracy under the rule of law as the only acceptable constitutional form of government.[123]

Anthony Crosland, who argued that traditional capitalism had been reformed and modified almost out of existence by the social democratic welfare policy regime after World War II

During the Great Recession, Social Democratic parties in Europe increasingly adopted austerity as a policy response to the economic crisis, shifting away from the traditional Keynesian response of deficit spending. According to Björn Bremer, this shift in thinking was due to the influence of supply-side economics on Social Democratic leaders and by electoral motivations whereby Social Democrats wanted to appear economically competent to voters by adopting orthodox fiscal policies.[124]

Social democracy and democratic socialism

Further information: Democratic socialism
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Social democracy has some significant overlap in practical policy positions with democratic socialism,[125] although they are usually distinguished from each other.[126] In Britain, the revised version of Clause IV to the Labour Party Constitution, which was implemented in the 1990s by the New Labour faction led by Tony Blair,[127] affirms a formal commitment to democratic socialism,[56] describing it as a modernized form of social democracy;[128] however, it no longer commits the party to public ownership of industry and in its place advocates "the enterprise of the market and the rigour of competition" along with "high quality public services either owned by the public or accountable to them".[56] Many social democrats "refer to themselves as socialists or democratic socialists", and some such as Blair[116] "use or have used these terms interchangeably".[129] Others argue that "there are clear differences between the three terms, and preferred to describe their own political beliefs by using the term 'social democracy' only".[130]

Democratic socialism

public ownership over major and strategic industries.[34]

Internal debates

During the late 20th century, those labels were embraced, contested and rejected due to the emergence of developments within the European left,

centrist politicians that supported triangulation within the Labour and Democratic parties.[155]

According to both right-wing critics and supporters alike, policies such as universal

education are "pure Socialism" because they are opposed to "the hedonism of capitalist society".[156] Because of this overlap, democratic socialism refers to European socialism as represented by social democracy,[157] especially in the United States,[158] where it is tied to the New Deal.[159] Some democratic socialists who follow social democracy support practical, progressive reforms of capitalism and are more concerned with administrating and humanising it, with socialism relegated to the indefinite future.[160] Other democratic socialists want to go beyond mere meliorist reforms and advocate the systematic transformation of the mode of production from capitalism to socialism.[161]

In the United States

Despite the long history of overlap between the two, with social democracy considered a form of democratic or parliamentary socialism and social democrats calling themselves democratic socialists,

Marxist–Leninist socialism as practised in the Soviet Union and other self-declared socialist states.[26] Democratic socialism has been described as representing the left-wing[163] or socialist tradition of the New Deal.[164]

The lack of a strong and influential

socialist states.[166] Socialism has been used as a pejorative term by members of the political right to stop the implementation of liberal and progressive policies and proposals and to criticize the public figures trying to implement them.[167] Although Americans may reject the idea that the United States has characteristics of a European-style social democracy, it has been argued by some observers that it has a comfortable social safety net, albeit severely underfunded in comparison to other Western countries.[168] It has also been argued that many policies that may be considered socialist are popular but that socialism is not.[163] Others, such as Tony Judt, described modern liberalism in the United States as representing European social democracy.[169]

In South Africa

South Africa has been governed by the African National Congress (ANC), a social-democratic party, since 1994. In 2022, The World Economic Forum said that South Africa risks state collapse and identified five major risks facing the country.[170] Former minister Jay Naidoo has said that South Africa is in serious trouble and is showing signs of a failed state, with record unemployment levels and the fact that many young people will not find a job in their lifetime.[171]

Policy regime

Social democracy rests on three fundamental features, namely: "(1) parliamentary democracy, (2) an economy partly regulated by the state, and (3) provision of social support to those in need".

Liberal economist William Beveridge influenced the Labour Party's social policies, such as the National Health Service and Labour's welfare state development.[175] This social-liberal paradigm represented the post-war consensus and was accepted across the political spectrum by conservatives, liberals and socialists until the 1970s.[176] Similarly, the neoliberal paradigm, which replaced the previous paradigm, was accepted across the mainstream political parties, including social democratic supporters of the Third Way.[177] This has caused much controversy within the social democratic movement.[178]

Role of the state

From the late 19th century until the mid to late 20th century, there was greater public confidence in the idea of a state-managed economy that was a major pillar of communism, and to a substantial degree by

state interventionism, resulted in socialists re-evaluating and redesigning socialism.[184] Some social democrats have sought to keep what they deem are socialism's core values while changing their position on state involvement in the economy and retaining significant social regulations.[185]

minister of health (1945–1951)
François Mitterrand, president of France

(1981–1995)

When

post-war Labour government and the architect of the National Health Service, disputed the claim.[188] For Crosland and others who supported his views, Britain was a socialist state.[181] According to Bevan, Britain had a socialist National Health Service, which opposed the hedonism of Britain's capitalist society.[156]

Although, as in the rest of Europe, the

Public ownership never accounted for more than 15–20% of capital formation, further dropping to 8% in the 1980s and below 5% in the 1990s after the rise of neoliberalism.[189]

The collapse of the legitimacy of state socialism and

actually existing socialism' had totally discredited any version of socialism among those who had lived under it".[194]

Corporatism

Social democracy influenced the development of

Third Way social democracy.[199] Social democratic theorist Robin Archer wrote about the importance of social corporatism to social democracy in his work Economic Democracy: The Politics of a Feasible Socialism (1995).[200] As a welfare state, social democracy is a specific type of welfare state and policy regime described as being universalist, supportive of collective bargaining, and more supportive of public provision of welfare. It is especially associated with the Nordic model.[201]

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Social democratic policies were first adopted in the

social welfare proposals initially suggested by the Social Democrats to hinder their electoral success after he instituted the Anti-Socialist Laws, laying the ground of the first modern welfare state.[45] Those policies were dubbed State Socialism by the liberal opposition, but Bismarck later accepted and re-appropriated the term.[202] It was a set of social programs implemented in Germany that Bismarck initiated in 1883 as remedial measures to appease the working class and reduce support for socialism and the Social Democrats following earlier attempts to achieve the same objective through Bismarck's Anti-Socialist Laws.[203] This did not prevent the Social Democrats from becoming the biggest party in parliament by 1912.[204]

Similar policies were later adopted in most of Western Europe, including France and the United Kingdom (the latter in the form of the

Miracle of the Han River), France (Trente Glorieuses), Italy (Italian economic miracle), and Greece (Greek economic miracle).[207]

With the

economic recession caused the Pasokification of many social democratic parties.[211]

The United Nations

labour and economic freedoms,[219] peace,[220] and freedom from corruption.[221] Numerous studies and surveys indicate that people live happier lives in countries ruled by social democratic parties than those ruled by neoliberal, centrist, and right-wing governments.[222]

Criticism

See also:
Criticism of welfare states

Other socialists criticize social democracy because it serves to devise new means to strengthen the capitalist system, which conflicts with the socialist goal of replacing capitalism with a socialist system.

decentralized planning of the economy.[136]

Marxian socialists argue that social democratic welfare policies cannot resolve the fundamental structural issues of capitalism, such as cyclical fluctuations, exploitation, and alienation. Accordingly, social democratic programs intended to ameliorate living conditions in capitalism, such as unemployment benefits and taxation on profits, creates further contradictions by further limiting the efficiency of the capitalist system by reducing incentives for capitalists to invest in further production.[225] The welfare state only serves to legitimize and prolong the exploitative and contradiction-laden system of capitalism to society's detriment. Critics of contemporary social democracy, such as Jonas Hinnfors, argue that when social democracy abandoned Marxism, it also abandoned socialism and became a liberal capitalist movement, effectively making social democrats similar to non-socialist parties like the Democratic Party in the United States.[226]

Franklin Delano Roosevelt III (grandson of United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt) and David Belkin criticize social democracy for maintaining a property-owning capitalist class with an active interest in reversing social democratic welfare policies and a disproportionate amount of power as a class to influence government policy.[227] The economists John Roemer and Pranab Bardhan point out that social democracy requires a strong labour movement to sustain its heavy redistribution through taxes and that it is idealistic to think such redistribution can be accomplished in other countries with weaker labour movements, noting that social democracy in Scandinavian countries has been in decline as the labour movement weakened.[228]

Some critics say social democracy abandoned socialism in the 1930s by endorsing Keynesian

Keynesianism as part of a "social democratic compromise" between capitalism and socialism. Although this compromise did not allow for the immediate creation of socialism, it created welfare states and "recognized noncapitalist, and even anticapitalist, principles of human need over and above the imperatives of profit".[74] Social democrats in favour of the Third Way have been accused of endorsing capitalism, including anti-Third Way social democrats who have accused Third Way proponents such as Anthony Giddens of being anti-social democratic and anti-socialist in practice.[230] Some critics and analysts argue that many prominent social democratic parties,[nb 10] such as the Labour Party in Britain and the Social Democratic Party of Germany, even while maintaining references to socialism and declaring themselves democratic socialist parties, have abandoned socialism in practice, whether unwillingly or not.[178]

Social democracy's reformism has been criticized by both the left and right,

corporatist economic model to the model supported by fascism. This view was adopted by the Communist International, which argued that capitalist society had entered the Third Period in which a proletarian revolution was imminent but could be prevented by social democrats and other fascist forces.[235]

See also

References

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Notes

  1. ^ "Social democracy is a political ideology focusing on an evolutionary road to socialism or the humanization of capitalism. It includes parliamentary process of reform, the provision of state benefits to the population, agreements between labor and the state, and the revisionist movement away from revolutionary socialism."[23] "By the early twentieth century, ... many such [social democratic] parties had come to adopt parliamentary tactics and were committed to a gradual and peaceful transition to socialism. As a result, social democracy was increasingly taken to refer to democratic socialism, in contrast to revolutionary socialism."[27] "Social democracy refers to a political theory, a social movement or a society that aims to achieve the egalitarian objectives of socialism while remaining committed to the values and institutions of liberal democracy."[28] "In general, a label for any person or group who advocates the pursuit of socialism by democratic means. Used especially by parliamentary social democrats who put parliamentarism ahead of socialism, and therefore oppose revolutionary action against democratically elected governments. Less ambiguous than social democracy, which has had, historically, the opposite meanings of (1) factions of Marxism, and (2) groupings on the right of socialist parties."[29]
  2. ^ Donald F. Busky wrote: "Social democracy is a somewhat controversial term among democratic socialists. Many democratic socialists use social democracy as a synonym for democratic socialism, while others, particularly revolutionary democratic socialists, do not, the latter seeing social democracy as something less than socialism—a milder, evolutionary ideology that seeks merely to reform capitalism. Communists also use the term social democratic to mean something less than true socialism that sought only to preserve capitalism by reform rather than by overthrowing and establishing socialism. Even revolutionary democratic socialists and Communists have at times, particularly the past, called their parties 'social democratic.'"[33]
  3. ^ "Social democracy therefore came to stand for a broad balance between the market economy, on the one hand, and state intervention, on the other. Although this stance has been most clearly associated with reformist socialism, it has also been embraced, to a greater or lesser extent, by others, notably modern liberals and paternalist conservatives."[27]
  4. ^ According to Richard T. Ely, "[social democrats] have two distinguishing characteristics. The vast majority of them are laborers, and, as a rule, they expect the violent overthrow of existing institutions by revolution to precede the introduction of the socialistic state. I would not, by any means, say that they are all revolutionists, but the most of them undoubtedly are. The most general demands of the social democrats are the following: The state should exist exclusively for the laborers; land and capital must become collective property, and production be carried on unitedly. Private competition, in the ordinary sense of the term, is to cease."[52]
  5. ^ "The far left is becoming the principal challenge to mainstream social democratic parties, in large part because its main parties are no longer extreme, but present themselves as defending the values and policies that social democrats have allegedly abandoned."[54]
  6. ^ The party's first chapter in its statutes says "the intention of the Swedish Social Democratic Labour Party is the struggle towards the Democratic Socialism", which is defined as a society with a democratic economy based on the socialist principle "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need."[60]
  7. ^ They include from top to row August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht from the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany; Karl Marx as an ideal pulse in the middle; and Carl Wilhelm Tölcke and Ferdinand Lassalle from the General German Workers' Association in the bottom row.
  8. orthodox Marxists such as Karl Kautsky[137] and Rosa Luxemburg,[138] as well as revisionists such as Eduard Bernstein, who supported social democracy.[139]
  9. ^ It peaked after the mid-September 2008 outbreak.[151]
  10. ^ "With the rise of neoliberalism, social democracy turned towards the right and increasingly adopted neoliberal policies. When Tony Blair became British Prime Minister in 1997, his neoliberal vision of social democracy influenced social democracy around the world. The consequence was that social democracy became in many respects indistinguishable from conservative parties, especially in respect to class politics."[231]

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