Social structure
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In the
Since the 1920s, the term has been in general use in social science,[2] especially as a variable whose sub-components needed to be distinguished in relationship to other sociological variables, as well as in academic literature, as result of the rising influence of structuralism. The concept of "social stratification", for instance, uses the idea of social structure to explain that most societies are separated into different strata (levels), guided (if only partially) by the underlying structures in the social system. It is also important in the modern study of organizations, as an organization's structure may determine its flexibility, capacity to change, etc. In this sense, structure is an important issue for management.
On the
History
Early history
The early study of social structures has considerably informed the study of institutions, culture and agency, social interaction, and history.
Alexis de Tocqueville was supposedly the first to use the term "social structure". Later, Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer, Ferdinand Tönnies, Émile Durkheim, and Max Weber would all contribute to structural concepts in sociology. The latter, for example, investigated and analyzed the institutions of modern society: market, bureaucracy (private enterprise and public administration), and politics (e.g. democracy).
One of the earliest and most comprehensive accounts of social structure was provided by Karl Marx, who related political, cultural, and religious life to the
In 1905, German sociologist
As did Marx and Weber, Georg Simmel, more generally, developed a wide-ranging approach that provided observations and insights into domination and subordination; competition; division of labor; formation of parties; representation; inner solidarity and external exclusiveness; and many similar features of the state, religious communities, economic associations, art schools, and of family and kinship networks. However diverse the interests that give rise to these associations, the forms in which interests are realized may yet be identical.[6]
Later developments
The notion of social structure was extensively developed in the 20th century with key contributions from structuralist perspectives drawing on theories of Claude Lévi-Strauss, as well as feminist, marxist, functionalist (e.g. those developed by Talcott Parsons and followers), and a variety of other analytic perspectives.[7][8] Some follow Marx in trying to identify the basic dimensions of society that explain the other dimensions, most emphasizing either economic production or political power. Others follow Lévi-Strauss in seeking logical order in cultural structures. Still others, notably Peter Blau, follow Simmel in attempting to base a formal theory of social structure on numerical patterns in relationships—analyzing, for example, the ways in which factors like group size shape intergroup relations.[4]
The notion of social structure is intimately related to a variety of central topics in social science, including the relation of
Other recent work by
Definitions and concepts
As noted above, social structure has been conceptualized as:
- the relationship of definite entities or groups to each other;
- the enduring patterns of behaviour by participants in a social system in relation to each other; and
- the institutionalised norms or cognitive frameworks that structure the actions of actors in the social system.
Institutional vs Relational
Furthermore, Lopez and Scott (2000) distinguish between two types of structure:[8]
- Institutional structure: "social structure is seen as comprising those cultural or normative patterns that define the expectations of [sic] agents hold about each other's behaviour and that organize their enduring relations with each other."
- Relational structure: "social structure is seen as comprising the relationships themselves, understood as patterns of causal interconnection and interdependence among agents and their actions, as well as the positions that they occupy."
Micro vs Macro
Social structure can also be divided into microstructure and macrostructure:
- Microstructure: The pattern of relations between most basic elements of social life, that cannot be further divided and have no social structure of their own (e.g. pattern of relations between individuals in a group composed of individuals, where individuals have no social structure; or a structure of organizations as a pattern of relations between social roles, where those positions and roles have no structure by themselves).
- Macrostructure: The pattern of relations between objects that have their own structure (e.g. a political social structure between political parties, as political parties have their own social structure).
Other types
Sociologists also distinguish between:
- Normative structures: pattern of relations in a given structure (organization) between norms and modes of operations of people of varying social positions
- Ideal structures: pattern of relations between beliefs and views of people of varying social positions
- Interest structures: pattern of relations between goals and desires of people of varying social positions
- Interaction structures: forms of communication of people of varying social positions
Modern sociologists sometimes differentiate between three types of social structures:
- Relation structures: family or larger family-like clan structures
- Communication structures: structures in which information is passed (e.g. in organizations)
- Sociometric structures: structures of sympathy, antipathy, and indifference in organizations. This was studied by Jacob L. Moreno.
Origin and development of structures
Some believe that social structure develops naturally, caused by larger systemic needs (e.g. the need for
Ethnography has contributed to understandings about social structure by revealing local practices and customs that differ from Western practices of hierarchy and economic power in its construction.[3]
Social structures can be influenced by individuals, but individuals are often influenced by
Critical implications
The notion of social structure may mask systematic biases, as it involves many identifiable sub-variables (e.g. gender). Some argue that men and women who have otherwise equal qualifications receive different treatment in the workplace because of their gender, which would be termed a "social structural" bias, but other variables (such as time on the job or hours worked) might be masked. Modern social structural analysis takes this into account through
Development of Individualism
Sociologists such as Georges Palante have written on how social structures coerce our individuality and social groups by shaping the actions, thoughts, and beliefs of every individual human being. In terms of agents of socialization, social structures are slightly influenced by individuals but individuals are more greatly influenced by them. Some examples of these agents of socialization are the workplace, family, religion, and school. The way these agents of socialization influence your individualism varies on each one; however, they all play a big role in your self-identity development. Agents of socialization can also affect how you see yourself individually or as part of a collective. Our identities are constructed through social influences that we encounter in our daily lives. [17] The way you are raised to view your individuality can hinder your ability to succeed by capping your abilities or it could become an obstacle in certain environments in which individuality is embraced like colleges or friend groups. [17]
Related concepts
- Agency (sociology)
- Base and superstructure
- Cognitive social structures
- Conflict theory
- Formative context
- Morphological analysis
- Norm (sociology)
- Political structure
- Power (social and political)
- Socialization
- Social Model
- Social network
- Social order
- Social reproduction
- Social space
- Social structure of the United States
- Sociotechnical systems theory
- Structural functionalism
- Structural violence
- Structure and agency
- Systems theory
- Technological determinism
- Theory of structuration
- Values
Related theorists
References
- ISBN 9783643901033.
- ^ Merton, Robert. 1938. "Social Structure and Nominate." American Sociological Review 3(5):672–82.
- ^ a b Muller-Schwarz, Nina K. (2015). The Blood of Victoria no Lorenzo: An Ethnography of the Solos of Northern Coco Province. Jefferson, NC: McFarland Press.
- ^ a b c d Calhoun, Craig. 2002. "Social Structure." Dictionary of the Social Sciences. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ^ Tönnies, Ferdinand. 1905. "The Present Problems of Social Structure." American Journal of Sociology 10(5):569–88.
- ^ Crothers, Charles. 1996. Social Structure. London: Routledge.
- ^ Blau, Peter M., ed. 1975. Approaches to the Study of Social Structure. New York: The Free Press.
- ^ OCLC 43708597. p. 3.
- ^ Archer, Margaret S. 1995. Realist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- SAGE.
- ISBN 9783631575963.
- ^ Wallerstein, Immanuel. 2004. World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction. Durham: Duke University Press.
- ISSN 0017-8012. Retrieved 2022-04-27.
The mismatch between institutions' cultural ideal of independence and the interdependent norms common among working-class individuals can reduce their opportunity to succeed.
- ^ Genner, Sarah; SÜSS, Daniel (2017). "Socialization as Media Effect" (PDF). In Rössler, Patrick (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Media Effects. John Wiley & Sons.
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: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ Aberration, et al. 2000
- ^ Jary, D., and J. Jary, eds. 1991. "Social structure." The Harper Collins Dictionary of Sociology. New York: Harper Collins.
- ^ a b Halasz, Judith (2022). Social Structure and The Individual. PanOpen Telegrapher. pp. 7–17.
Further reading
- Abercrombie, Nicholas, Stephan Hill, and Bryan S. Turner. 2000. "Social structure." Pp. 326–7 in The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology (4th ed.). London: Penguin.
- Eloire, Fabien. 2015. "The Bourdieusian Conception of Social Capital: A Methodological Reflection and Application." Forum for Social Economics 47 (3): 322–41
- Murdock, George (1949). Social Structure. New York: MacMillan.
- Porpora, Douglas V. 1987. The Concept of Social Structure. New York: Greenwood Press.
- — 1989. "Four Concepts of Social Structure." Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 19 (2): 195–211.
- Sewell, William H. (1992). "A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation". American Journal of Sociology. 98 (1): 1–29.
- Smelser, Neal J. 1988. "Social structure." Pp. 103–209 in The Handbook of Sociology, edited by N. J. Smelser. London: SAGE.