Sodium hypochlorite
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IUPAC name
Sodium hypochlorite
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Other names
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Identifiers | |
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3D model (
JSmol ) |
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ChEBI | |
ChemSpider | |
DrugBank | |
ECHA InfoCard
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100.028.790 |
EC Number |
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KEGG | |
PubChem CID
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RTECS number
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UNII | |
UN number | 1791 |
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
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Properties | |
NaOCl | |
Molar mass | 74.442 g/mol |
Appearance |
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Odor | Chlorine-like and sweetish (pentahydrate)[1] |
Density | 1.11 g/cm3 |
Melting point | 18 °C (64 °F; 291 K) (pentahydrate) |
Boiling point | 101 °C (214 °F; 374 K) (decomposes) (pentahydrate) |
29.3 g/(100 mL) (0 °C)[2] | |
Acidity (pKa) | 7.5185 |
Basicity (pKb) | 6.4815 |
Thermochemistry | |
Std enthalpy of (ΔfH⦵298)formation |
−347.1 kJ/mol |
Pharmacology | |
D08AX07 (WHO) | |
Hazards | |
Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH): | |
Main hazards
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Oxidizer, corrosive[3] |
GHS labelling: | |
Danger | |
H302, H314, H410 | |
P260, P264, P273, P280, P301+P330+P331, P303+P361+P353, P304+P340, P305+P351+P338, P310, P321, P363, P391, P405, P501 | |
NFPA 704 (fire diamond) | |
Safety data sheet (SDS) | ICSC 1119 (solution, >10% active chlorine) ICSC 0482 (solution, <10% active chlorine) |
Related compounds | |
Other anions
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Other cations
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Related compounds
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Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Sodium hypochlorite is an
The anhydrous compound is unstable and may decompose explosively.[5][6] It can be crystallized as a pentahydrate NaOCl·5H2O, a pale greenish-yellow solid which is not explosive and is stable if kept refrigerated.[7][8][9]
Sodium hypochlorite is most often encountered as a pale greenish-yellow dilute solution referred to as chlorine bleach, which is a
Its corrosive properties, common availability, and reaction products make it a significant safety risk. In particular,
Chemistry
Stability of the solid
Anhydrous sodium hypochlorite can be prepared but, like many hypochlorites, it is highly unstable and decomposes explosively on heating or friction.
Sodium hypochlorite can also be obtained as a
A 1966 US patent claims that stable solid sodium hypochlorite dihydrate NaOCl·2H2O can be obtained by carefully excluding chloride ions (Cl−), which are present in the output of common manufacturing processes and are said to catalyze the decomposition of hypochlorite into chlorate (ClO−3) and chloride. In one test, the dihydrate was claimed to show only 6% decomposition after 13.5 months of storage at −25 °C. The patent also claims that the dihydrate can be reduced to the anhydrous form by vacuum drying at about 50 °C, yielding a solid that showed no decomposition after 64 hours at −25 °C.[21]
Equilibria and stability of solutions
At typical ambient temperatures, sodium hypochlorite is more stable in dilute solutions that contain solvated Na+ and OCl− ions. The density of the solution is 1.093 g/mL at 5% concentration,
- OCl− + H2O ⇌ HOCl + OH−
The following species and equilibria are present in NaOCl/NaCl solutions:[24]
- HOCl(aq) ⇌ H+ + OCl−
- HOCl(aq) + Cl− + H+ ⇌ Cl2(aq) + H2O
- Cl2(aq) + Cl− ⇌ Cl−3
- Cl2(aq) ⇌ Cl2(g)
The second equilibrium equation above will be shifted to the right if the chlorine Cl2 is allowed to escape as gas. The ratios of Cl2, HOCl, and OCl− in solution are also pH dependent. At pH below 2, the majority of the chlorine in the solution is in the form of dissolved elemental Cl2. At pH greater than 7.4, the majority is in the form of hypochlorite ClO−.[10] The equilibrium can be shifted by adding acids (such as hydrochloric acid) or bases (such as sodium hydroxide) to the solution:
- ClO−(aq) + 2 HCl(aq) → Cl2(g) + H2O + Cl−(aq)
- Cl2(g) + 2 OH− → ClO−(aq) + Cl−(aq) + H2O(aq)
At a pH of about 4, such as obtained by the addition of
- −OCl + H+ ⇌ HOCl
Sodium hypochlorite solutions combined with acid evolve chlorine gas, particularly strongly at pH < 2, by the reactions:
- HOCl(aq) + Cl− + H+ ⇌ Cl2(aq) + H2O
- Cl2(aq) ⇌ Cl2(g)
At pH > 8, the chlorine is practically all in the form of hypochlorite anions (OCl−). The solutions are fairly stable at pH 11–12. Even so, one report claims that a conventional 13.6% NaOCl reagent solution lost 17% of its strength after being stored for 360 days at 7 °C.[8] For this reason, in some applications one may use more stable chlorine-releasing compounds, such as calcium hypochlorite Ca(ClO)2 or trichloroisocyanuric acid (CNClO)3.[citation needed]
Anhydrous sodium hypochlorite is soluble in methanol, and solutions are stable.[citation needed]
Decomposition to chlorate or oxygen
In solution, under certain conditions, the hypochlorite anion may also disproportionate (autoxidize) to chloride and chlorate:[25]
- 3 ClO− + H+ → HClO3 + 2 Cl−
In particular, this reaction occurs in sodium hypochlorite solutions at high temperatures, forming sodium chlorate and sodium chloride:[25][26]
- 3 NaOCl(aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq)
This reaction is exploited in the industrial production of sodium chlorate.
An alternative decomposition of hypochlorite produces oxygen instead:
- 2 OCl− → 2 Cl− + O2
In hot sodium hypochlorite solutions, this reaction competes with chlorate formation, yielding sodium chloride and oxygen gas:[25]
- 2 NaOCl(aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + O2(g)
These two decomposition reactions of NaClO solutions are maximized at pH around 6. The chlorate-producing reaction predominates at pH above 6, while the oxygen one becomes significant below that. For example, at 80 °C, with NaOCl and NaCl concentrations of 80
Titration
Titration of hypochlorite solutions is often done by adding a measured sample to an excess amount of acidified solution of potassium iodide (KI) and then titrating the liberated iodine (I2) with a standard solution of sodium thiosulfate or phenylarsine oxide, using starch as indicator, until the blue color disappears.[19]
According to one US patent, the stability of sodium hypochlorite content of solids or solutions can be determined by monitoring the infrared absorption due to the O–Cl bond. The characteristic wavelength is given as 140.25 μm for water solutions, 140.05 μm for the solid dihydrate NaOCl·2H2O, and 139.08 μm for the anhydrous mixed salt Na2(OCl)(OH).[21]
Oxidation of organic compounds
Oxidation of
In the presence of a
Oxidation of metals and complexes
- NaOCl + Zn → ZnO + NaCl
Other reactions
If not properly stored in airtight containers, sodium hypochlorite reacts with carbon dioxide to form sodium carbonate:
- 2 NaOCl + CO2 + H2O → Na2CO3 + 2 HOCl
Sodium hypochlorite reacts with most nitrogen compounds to form volatile monochloramine, dichloramines, and nitrogen trichloride:
- NH3 + NaOCl → NH2Cl + NaOH
- NH2Cl + NaOCl → NHCl2 + NaOH
- NHCl2 + NaOCl → NCl3 + NaOH
Neutralization
Sodium thiosulfate is an effective chlorine neutralizer. Rinsing with a 5 mg/L solution, followed by washing with soap and water, will remove chlorine odor from the hands.[30]
Production
Chlorination of soda
- Cl2(g) + 2 NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + NaClO(aq) + H2O
Hence, chlorine is simultaneously
The process is also used to prepare the pentahydrate NaOCl·5H2O for industrial and laboratory use. In a typical process, chlorine gas is added to a 45–48% NaOH solution. Some of the sodium chloride precipitates and is removed by filtration, and the pentahydrate is then obtained by cooling the filtrate to 12 °C .[8]
From calcium hypochlorite
Another method involved the reaction of sodium carbonate ("washing soda") with
- Na2CO3(aq) + Ca(OCl)2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + 2 NaOCl(aq)
- Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + 2 NaCl(aq)
- Na2CO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) → CaCO3(s) + 2 NaOH(aq)
This method was commonly used to produce hypochlorite solutions for use as a hospital antiseptic that was sold after World War I under the names "Eusol", an abbreviation for Edinburgh University Solution Of (chlorinated) Lime – a reference to the university's pathology department, where it was developed.[33]
Electrolysis of brine
Near the end of the nineteenth century, E. S. Smith patented the chloralkali process: a method of producing sodium hypochlorite involving the electrolysis of brine to produce sodium hydroxide and chlorine gas, which then mixed to form sodium hypochlorite.[34][32][35] The key reactions are:
Both electric power and brine solution were in cheap supply at the time, and various enterprising marketers took advantage of the situation to satisfy the market's demand for sodium hypochlorite. Bottled solutions of sodium hypochlorite were sold under numerous trade names.[citation needed]
Today, an improved version of this method, known as the Hooker process (named after Hooker Chemicals, acquired by Occidental Petroleum), is the only large-scale industrial method of sodium hypochlorite production. In the process, sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and sodium chloride (NaCl) are formed when chlorine is passed into cold dilute sodium hydroxide solution. The chlorine is prepared industrially by electrolysis with minimal separation between the anode and the cathode. The solution must be kept below 40 °C (by cooling coils) to prevent the undesired formation of sodium chlorate.[citation needed]
Commercial solutions always contain significant amounts of sodium chloride (common salt) as the main by-product, as seen in the equation above.
From hypochlorous acid and soda
A 1966 patent describes the production of solid stable dihydrate NaOCl·2H2O by reacting a chloride-free solution of hypochlorous acid HClO (such as prepared from chlorine monoxide ClO and water), with a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide. In a typical preparation, 255 mL of a solution with 118 g/L HClO is slowly added with stirring to a solution of 40 g of NaOH in water 0 °C. Some sodium chloride precipitates and is removed by filtration. The solution is vacuum evaporated at 40–50 °C and 1–2
The same principle was used in a 1993 patent to produce concentrated slurries of the pentahydrate NaClO·5H2O. Typically, a 35% solution (by weight) of HClO is combined with sodium hydroxide at about or below 25 °C. The resulting slurry contains about 35% NaClO, and are relatively stable due to the low concentration of chloride.[36]
Packaging and sale
Household bleach sold for use in laundering clothes is a 3–8% solution of sodium hypochlorite at the time of manufacture. Strength varies from one formulation to another and gradually decreases with long storage. Sodium hydroxide is usually added in small amounts to household bleach to slow down the decomposition of NaClO.[10]
Domestic use patio blackspot remover products are ~10% solutions of sodium hypochlorite.
A 10–25% solution of sodium hypochlorite is, according to Univar's safety sheet, supplied with synonyms or trade names bleach, Hypo, Everchlor, Chloros, Hispec, Bridos, Bleacol, or Vo-redox 9110.[37]
A 12% solution is widely used in waterworks for the chlorination of water, and a 15% solution is more commonly[38] used for disinfection of waste water in treatment plants. Sodium hypochlorite can also be used for point-of-use disinfection of drinking water,[39] taking 0.2-2 mg of sodium hypochlorite per liter of water.[40]
Dilute solutions (50 ppm to 1.5%) are found in disinfecting sprays and wipes used on hard surfaces.[41][42]
Uses
Bleaching
Household bleach is, in general, a solution containing 3–8% sodium hypochlorite, by weight, and 0.01–0.05% sodium hydroxide; the sodium hydroxide is used to slow the decomposition of sodium hypochlorite into sodium chloride and sodium chlorate.[43]
Cleaning
Sodium hypochlorite has destaining properties.
Its bleaching, cleaning, deodorizing and caustic effects are due to
Disinfection
Sodium hypochlorite in solution exhibits broad spectrum anti-microbial activity and is widely used in healthcare facilities in a variety of settings.
"Dakin's Solution" is a disinfectant solution containing low concentration of sodium hypochlorite and some boric acid or sodium bicarbonate to stabilize the pH. It has been found to be effective with NaOCl concentrations as low as 0.025%.[50]
US government regulations allow food processing equipment and food contact surfaces to be sanitized with solutions containing bleach, provided that the solution is allowed to drain adequately before contact with food, and that the solutions do not exceed 200 parts per million (ppm) available chlorine (for example, one tablespoon of typical household bleach containing 5.25% sodium hypochlorite, per gallon of water).[51] If higher concentrations are used, the surface must be rinsed with potable water after sanitizing.
A similar concentration of bleach in warm water is used to sanitize surfaces prior to brewing of beer or wine. Surfaces must be rinsed with sterilized (boiled) water to avoid imparting flavors to the brew; the chlorinated byproducts of sanitizing surfaces are also harmful. The mode of disinfectant action of sodium hypochlorite is similar to that of hypochlorous acid.
Solutions containing more than 500 ppm available chlorine are
The undissociated (nonionized) hypochlorous acid is believed to react with and inactivate bacterial and viral enzymes.
Deodorizing
Sodium hypochlorite has deodorizing properties, which go hand in hand with its cleaning properties.[44]
Waste water treatment
Sodium hypochlorite solutions have been used to treat dilute cyanide waste water, such as electroplating wastes. In batch treatment operations, sodium hypochlorite has been used to treat more concentrated cyanide wastes, such as silver cyanide plating solutions. Toxic cyanide is oxidized to cyanate OCN−) that is not toxic, idealized as follows:
- CN− + −OCl → OCN− + Cl−
Sodium hypochlorite is commonly used as a biocide in industrial applications to control slime and bacteria formation in water systems used at power plants, pulp and paper mills, etc., in solutions typically of 10–15% by weight.
Endodontics
Sodium hypochlorite is the medicament of choice due to its efficacy against pathogenic organisms and pulp digestion in
Nerve agent neutralization
At the various nerve agent (chemical warfare nerve gas) destruction facilities throughout the United States, 0.5-2.5% sodium hypochlorite is used to remove all traces of nerve agent or blister agent from Personal Protection Equipment after an entry is made by personnel into toxic areas.[56] 0.5-2.5% sodium hypochlorite is also used to neutralize any accidental releases of the nerve agent in the toxic areas.[57] Lesser concentrations of sodium hypochlorite are used in a similar fashion in the Pollution Abatement System to ensure that no nerve agent is released into the furnace flue gas.
Reduction of skin damage
Safety
Dilute sodium hypochlorite solutions (as in household bleach) are irritating to mainly the skin and respiratory tract. Short-term skin contact with household bleach may cause dryness of the skin.
It is estimated that there are about 3,300 accidents needing hospital treatment caused by sodium hypochlorite solutions each year in British homes (RoSPA, 2002).
Oxidation and corrosion
Sodium hypochlorite is a strong
Household bleach and pool chlorinator solutions are typically stabilized by a significant concentration of lye (caustic soda, NaOH) as part of the manufacturing reaction. This additive will by itself cause caustic irritation or burns due to defatting and saponification of skin oils and destruction of tissue. The slippery feel of bleach on skin is due to this process.
Storage hazards
Contact of sodium hypochlorite solutions with metals may evolve flammable hydrogen gas. Containers may explode when heated due to release of chlorine gas.[15]
Hypochlorite solutions are corrosive to common container materials such as
Containers must allow venting of oxygen produced by decomposition over time, otherwise they may burst.[5]
Reactions with other common products
Mixing bleach with some household cleaners can be hazardous.
Sodium hypochlorite solutions, such as liquid bleach, will release toxic chlorine gas when mixed with an acid, such as hydrochloric acid or vinegar.
A 2008 study indicated that sodium hypochlorite and organic chemicals (e.g., surfactants, fragrances) contained in several household cleaning products can react to generate chlorinated organic compounds.[62] The study showed that indoor air concentrations significantly increase (8–52 times for chloroform and 1–1170 times for carbon tetrachloride, respectively, above baseline quantities in the household) during the use of bleach containing products.
In particular, mixing hypochlorite bleaches with amines (for example, cleaning products that contain or release ammonia, ammonium salts, urea, or related compounds and biological materials such as urine) produces chloramines.[63][15] These gaseous products can cause acute lung injury. Chronic exposure, for example, from the air at swimming pools where chlorine is used as the disinfectant, can lead to the development of atopic asthma.[64]
Bleach can react violently with hydrogen peroxide and produce oxygen gas:
- H2O2(aq) + NaOCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O + O2(g)
Explosive reactions or byproducts can also occur in industrial and laboratory settings when sodium hypochlorite is mixed with diverse organic compounds.[15]
Limitations in health care
The UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence in October 2008 recommended that Dakin's solution should not be used in routine wound care.[65]
Environmental impact
In spite of its strong biocidal action, sodium hypochlorite per se has limited environmental impact, since the hypochlorite ion rapidly degrades before it can be absorbed by living beings.[66]
However, one major concern arising from sodium hypochlorite use is that it tends to form persistent
See also
- Calcium hypochlorite Ca(OCl)2 ("bleaching powder")
- Potassium hypochlorite KOCl (the original "Javel water")
- Lithium hypochlorite LiOCl
- Sodium hypochlorite washes
- Mixed oxidant
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External links
- International Chemical Safety Card 0482 (solutions<10% active Cl)
- International Chemical Safety Card 1119 (solutions >10% active Cl)
- Institut national de recherche et de sécurité (in French)
- Home and Leisure Accident Statistics 2002 (UK RoSPA)
- Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water (United States Environmental Protection Agency)
- Chlorinated Drinking Water (IARC Monograph)
- NTP Study Report TR-392: Chlorinated & Chloraminated Water (US NIH)
- Guidelines for the Use of Chlorine Bleach as a Sanitizer in Food Processing Operations (Oklahoma State University)