Sodium

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This article is about the chemical element. For the nutrient commonly called sodium, see salt. For the use of sodium as a medication, see Saline (medicine). For other uses, see sodium (disambiguation).
"Natrium" redirects here. For other uses, see Natrium (disambiguation).

Sodium, 11Na
Sodium
Appearancesilvery white metallic
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Na)
Sodium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Li
↑
Na
↓
K
neon ← sodium → magnesium
kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization97.42 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity28.230 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 554 617 697 802 946 1153
Atomic properties
New Latin natrium, coined from German Natron, 'natron'
Isotopes of sodium
Main isotopes[7] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
22Na trace 2.6019 y
β+
22Ne
23Na 100%
stable
24Na trace 14.9560 h
β−
24Mg
 Category: Sodium
| references

Sodium is a

minerals such as feldspars, sodalite, and halite (NaCl). Many salts of sodium are highly water-soluble: sodium ions have been leached by the action of water from the Earth's minerals over eons, and thus sodium and chlorine
are the most common dissolved elements by weight in the oceans.

Sodium was first isolated by

de-icing
agent and a nutrient for animals including humans.

Sodium is an

essential element for all animals and some plants. Sodium ions are the major cation in the extracellular fluid (ECF) and as such are the major contributor to the ECF osmotic pressure and ECF compartment volume.[citation needed] Loss of water from the ECF compartment increases the sodium concentration, a condition called hypernatremia. Isotonic loss of water and sodium from the ECF compartment decreases the size of that compartment in a condition called ECF hypovolemia
.

By means of the sodium–potassium pump, living human cells pump three sodium ions out of the cell in exchange for two potassium ions pumped in; comparing ion concentrations across the cell membrane, inside to outside, potassium measures about 40:1, and sodium, about 1:10. In nerve cells, the electrical charge across the cell membrane enables transmission of the nerve impulse—an action potential—when the charge is dissipated; sodium plays a key role in that activity.

Characteristics

Physical

Emission spectrum for sodium, showing the D line

Sodium at standard temperature and pressure is a soft silvery metal that combines with oxygen in the air, forming sodium oxides. Bulk sodium is usually stored in oil or an inert gas. Sodium metal can be easily cut with a knife. It is a good conductor of electricity and heat. Due to having low atomic mass and large atomic radius, sodium is third-least dense of all elemental metals and is one of only three metals that can float on water, the other two being lithium and potassium.[8]

The melting (98 °C) and boiling (883 °C) points of sodium are lower than those of lithium but higher than those of the heavier alkali metals potassium, rubidium, and caesium, following periodic trends down the group.

allotropes are insulators and electrides.[10]

A positive flame test for sodium has a bright yellow color.

In a

Spin-orbit interactions involving the electron in the 3p orbital split the D line into two, at 589.0 and 589.6 nm; hyperfine structures involving both orbitals cause many more lines.[12]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of sodium

Twenty isotopes of sodium are known, but only 23Na is stable. 23Na is created in the

cosmogenic isotopes are the byproduct of cosmic ray spallation: 22Na has a half-life of 2.6 years and 24Na, a half-life of 15 hours; all other isotopes have a half-life of less than one minute.[14]

Two nuclear isomers have been discovered, the longer-lived one being 24mNa with a half-life of around 20.2 milliseconds. Acute neutron radiation, as from a nuclear criticality accident, converts some of the stable 23Na in human blood to 24Na; the neutron radiation dosage of a victim can be calculated by measuring the concentration of 24Na relative to 23Na.[15]

Chemistry

Main article: Sodium compounds

Sodium atoms have 11 electrons, one more than the stable configuration of the

ionic compounds involving the Na+ cation.[16]

Metallic sodium

Metallic sodium is generally less reactive than

standard reduction potential for the Na+/Na couple being −2.71 volts,[18] though potassium and lithium have even more negative potentials.[19]

Salts and oxides

See also: Category:Sodium compounds
The structure of sodium chloride, showing octahedral coordination around Na+ and Cl− centres. This framework disintegrates when dissolved in water and reassembles when the water evaporates.

Sodium compounds are of immense commercial importance, being particularly central to industries producing

Lewis acid.[22]

Two equivalent images of the chemical structure of sodium stearate, a typical soap

Most soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids. Sodium soaps have a higher melting temperature (and seem "harder") than potassium soaps.[21]

Like all the alkali metals, sodium reacts exothermically with water. The reaction produces caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) and flammable hydrogen gas. When burned in air, it forms primarily sodium peroxide with some sodium oxide.[23]

Aqueous solutions

Sodium tends to form water-soluble compounds, such as

carboxylates and carbonates. The main aqueous species are the aquo complexes [Na(H2O)n]+, where n = 4–8; with n = 6 indicated from X-ray diffraction data and computer simulations.[24]

Direct precipitation of sodium salts from aqueous solutions is rare because sodium salts typically have a high affinity for water. An exception is

15-crown-5, may be used as a phase-transfer catalyst.[28]

Sodium content of samples is determined by

potentiometry using ion-selective electrodes.[29]

Electrides and sodides

Like the other alkali metals, sodium dissolves in ammonia and some amines to give deeply colored solutions; evaporation of these solutions leaves a shiny film of metallic sodium. The solutions contain the coordination complex [Na(NH3)6]+, with the positive charge counterbalanced by electrons as anions; cryptands permit the isolation of these complexes as crystalline solids. Sodium forms complexes with crown ethers, cryptands and other ligands.[30]

For example,

15-crown-5 has a high affinity for sodium because the cavity size of 15-crown-5 is 1.7–2.2 Å, which is enough to fit the sodium ion (1.9 Å).[31][32] Cryptands, like crown ethers and other ionophores, also have a high affinity for the sodium ion; derivatives of the alkalide Na− are obtainable[33] by the addition of cryptands to solutions of sodium in ammonia via disproportionation.[34]

Organosodium compounds

Main article: Organosodium chemistry
The structure of the complex of sodium (Na+, shown in yellow) and the antibiotic monensin-A

Many organosodium compounds have been prepared. Because of the high polarity of the C-Na bonds, they behave like sources of

trityl sodium ((C6H5)3CNa).[35] Sodium naphthalene, Na+[C10H8•]−, a strong reducing agent, forms upon mixing Na and naphthalene in ethereal solutions.[36]

Intermetallic compounds

Sodium forms alloys with many metals, such as potassium,

miscible with sodium, and the 1-2% of it dissolved in the sodium obtained from said mixtures can be precipitated by cooling to 120 °C and filtering.[37]

In a liquid state, sodium is completely miscible with lead. There are several methods to make sodium-lead alloys. One is to melt them together and another is to deposit sodium electrolytically on molten lead cathodes. NaPb3, NaPb, Na9Pb4, Na5Pb2, and Na15Pb4 are some of the known sodium-lead alloys. Sodium also forms alloys with gold (NaAu2) and silver (NaAg2). Group 12 metals (zinc, cadmium and mercury) are known to make alloys with sodium. NaZn13 and NaCd2 are alloys of zinc and cadmium. Sodium and mercury form NaHg, NaHg4, NaHg2, Na3Hg2, and Na3Hg.[38]

History

Because of its importance in human health, salt has long been an important commodity, as shown by the English word salary, which derives from salarium, the wafers of salt sometimes given to Roman soldiers along with their other wages.[citation needed] In medieval Europe, a compound of sodium with the Latin name of sodanum was used as a headache remedy. The name sodium is thought to originate from the Arabic suda, meaning headache, as the headache-alleviating properties of sodium carbonate or soda were well known in early times.[39]

Although sodium, sometimes called soda, had long been recognized in compounds, the metal itself was not isolated until 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy through the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide.[40][41] In 1809, the German physicist and chemist Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert proposed the names Natronium for Humphry Davy's "sodium" and Kalium for Davy's "potassium".[42]

The chemical abbreviation for sodium was first published in 1814 by

Jöns Jakob Berzelius in his system of atomic symbols,[43][44] and is an abbreviation of the element's Neo-Latin name natrium, which refers to the Egyptian natron,[39] a natural mineral salt mainly consisting of hydrated sodium carbonate. Natron historically had several important industrial and household uses, later eclipsed by other sodium compounds.[45]

Sodium imparts an intense yellow color to flames. As early as 1860, Kirchhoff and Bunsen noted the high sensitivity of a sodium flame test, and stated in Annalen der Physik und Chemie:[46]

In a corner of our 60 m3 room farthest away from the apparatus, we exploded 3 mg of sodium chlorate with milk sugar while observing the nonluminous flame before the slit. After a while, it glowed a bright yellow and showed a strong sodium line that disappeared only after 10 minutes. From the weight of the sodium salt and the volume of air in the room, we easily calculate that one part by weight of air could not contain more than 1/20 millionth weight of sodium.

Occurrence

The Earth's crust contains 2.27% sodium, making it the seventh most abundant element on Earth and the fifth most abundant metal, behind aluminium, iron, calcium, and magnesium and ahead of potassium.[47] Sodium's estimated oceanic abundance is 10.8 grams per liter.[48] Because of its high reactivity, it is never found as a pure element. It is found in many minerals, some very soluble, such as halite and natron, others much less soluble, such as amphibole and zeolite. The insolubility of certain sodium minerals such as cryolite and feldspar arises from their polymeric anions, which in the case of feldspar is a polysilicate. In the universe, sodium is the 15th most abundant element with a 20,000 parts-per-billion abundance,[49] making sodium 0.002% of the total atoms in the universe.

Astronomical observations

Atomic sodium has a very strong

absorption line in many types of stars, including the Sun. The line was first studied in 1814 by Joseph von Fraunhofer during his investigation of the lines in the solar spectrum, now known as the Fraunhofer lines. Fraunhofer named it the "D" line, although it is now known to actually be a group of closely spaced lines split by a fine and hyperfine structure.[50]

The strength of the D line allows its detection in many other astronomical environments. In stars, it is seen in any whose surfaces are cool enough for sodium to exist in atomic form (rather than ionised). This corresponds to stars of roughly

F-type and cooler. Many other stars appear to have a sodium absorption line, but this is actually caused by gas in the foreground interstellar medium. The two can be distinguished via high-resolution spectroscopy, because interstellar lines are much narrower than those broadened by stellar rotation.[51]

Sodium has also been detected in numerous

transit spectroscopy.[56]

Commercial production

Employed in rather specialized applications, about 100,000 tonnes of metallic sodium are produced annually.

carbothermal reduction of sodium carbonate at 1100 °C, as the first step of the Deville process for the production of aluminium:[57][58][59]

Na2CO3 + 2 C → 2 Na + 3 CO

The high demand for aluminium created the need for the production of sodium. The introduction of the Hall–Héroult process for the production of aluminium by electrolysing a molten salt bath ended the need for large quantities of sodium. A related process based on the reduction of sodium hydroxide was developed in 1886.[57]

Sodium is now produced commercially through the

electropositive than sodium, no calcium will be deposited at the cathode.[63] This method is less expensive than the previous Castner process (the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide).[64]
If sodium of high purity is required, it can be
distilled
once or several times.

The market for sodium is volatile due to the difficulty in its storage and shipping; it must be stored under a dry inert gas atmosphere or anhydrous mineral oil to prevent the formation of a surface layer of sodium oxide or sodium superoxide.[65]

Uses

See also:
Sodium supplements

Though metallic sodium has some important uses, the major applications for sodium use compounds; millions of tons of

de-icing and as a preservative; examples of the uses of sodium bicarbonate include baking, as a raising agent, and sodablasting. Along with potassium, many important medicines have sodium added to improve their bioavailability; though potassium is the better ion in most cases, sodium is chosen for its lower price and atomic weight.[66] Sodium hydride is used as a base for various reactions (such as the aldol reaction
) in organic chemistry.

Metallic sodium is used mainly for the production of

anti-scaling agent,[67]
and as a reducing agent for metals when other materials are ineffective.

Note the free element is not used as a scaling agent, ions in the water are exchanged for sodium ions.

with potassium, sodium is a desiccant; it gives an intense blue coloration with benzophenone when the desiccate is dry.[69]

In

assist in the adaptive optics for land-based visible-light telescopes.[73]

Heat transfer

NaK phase diagram, showing the melting point of sodium as a function of potassium concentration. NaK with 77% potassium is eutectic and has the lowest melting point of the NaK alloys at −12.6 °C.[74]

Liquid sodium is used as a heat transfer fluid in sodium-cooled fast reactors[75] because it has the high thermal conductivity and low neutron absorption cross section required to achieve a high neutron flux in the reactor.[76] The high boiling point of sodium allows the reactor to operate at ambient (normal) pressure,[76] but drawbacks include its opacity, which hinders visual maintenance, and its strongly reducing properties. Sodium will explode in contact with water, although it will only burn gently in air.[77]

Radioactive

NaK is used. Because NaK is a liquid at room temperature, the coolant does not solidify in the pipes.[79]

In this case, the pyrophoricity of potassium requires extra precautions to prevent and detect leaks.[80] Another heat transfer application is poppet valves in high-performance internal combustion engines; the valve stems are partially filled with sodium and work as a heat pipe to cool the valves.[81]

Biological role

Main article: Sodium in biology

Biological role in humans

In humans, sodium is an essential mineral that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH. The minimum physiological requirement for sodium is estimated to range from about 120 milligrams per day in newborns to 500 milligrams per day over the age of 10.[82]

Diet

baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), and sodium benzoate.[86]

The

U.S. Institute of Medicine set its tolerable upper intake level for sodium at 2.3 grams per day,[87] but the average person in the United States consumes 3.4 grams per day.[88] The American Heart Association recommends no more than 1.5 g of sodium per day.[89]

The Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium, which is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, has determined that there isn't enough evidence from research studies to establish Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) and Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) values for sodium. As a result, the committee has established Adequate Intake (AI) levels instead, as follows. The sodium AI for infants of 0–6 months is established at 110 mg/day, 7–12 months: 370 mg/day; for children 1–3 years: 800 mg/day, 4–8 years: 1,000 mg/day; for adolescents: 9–13 years - 1,200 mg/day, 14–18 years 1,500 mg/day; for adults regardless of their age or sex: 1,500 mg/day.[90]

Sodium chloride (NaCl) contains approximately 39.34% of elemental sodium (Na) the total mass. This means that 1 gram of sodium chloride contains approximately 393.4 mg of elemental sodium.[91]

For example, to find out how much sodium chloride contains 1500 mg of elemental sodium (the value of 1500 mg sodium is the adequate intake (AI) for an adult), we can use the proportion:

393.4 mg Na : 1000 mg NaCl = 1500 mg Na : x mg NaCl

Solving for x gives us the amount of sodium chloride that contains 1500 mg of elemental sodium:

x = (1500 mg Na × 1000 mg NaCl) / 393.4 mg Na = 3812.91 mg

This mean that 3812.91 mg of sodium chloride contain 1500 mg of elemental sodium.[91]

High sodium consumption

Main article: Health effects of salt

High sodium consumption is unhealthy, and can lead to alteration in the mechanical performance of the heart.

high blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases, and stroke.[92]

High blood pressure

There is a strong correlation between higher sodium intake and higher blood pressure.

systolic blood pressure by about two to four mm Hg.[94] It has been estimated that such a decrease in sodium intake would lead to 9–17% fewer cases of hypertension.[94]

Hypertension causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide each year.

US teaspoon.[97][98]

One study found that people with or without hypertension who excreted less than 3 grams of sodium per day in their urine (and therefore were taking in less than 3 g/d) had a higher risk of death, stroke, or heart attack than those excreting 4 to 5 grams per day.[99] Levels of 7 g per day or more in people with hypertension were associated with higher mortality and cardiovascular events, but this was not found to be true for people without hypertension.[99] The US FDA states that adults with hypertension and prehypertension should reduce daily sodium intake to 1.5 g.[98]

Physiology

The

Na+/K+-ATPase, an active transporter pumping ions against the gradient, and sodium/potassium channels.[101] Sodium is the most prevalent metallic ion in extracellular fluid.[102]

In humans, unusually low or high sodium levels in the blood is recognized in medicine as hyponatremia and hypernatremia. These conditions may be caused by genetic factors, ageing, or prolonged vomiting or diarrhea.[103]

Biological role in plants

In

C4 plants, sodium is a micronutrient that aids metabolism, specifically in regeneration of phosphoenolpyruvate and synthesis of chlorophyll.[104] In others, it substitutes for potassium in several roles, such as maintaining turgor pressure and aiding in the opening and closing of stomata.[105] Excess sodium in the soil can limit the uptake of water by decreasing the water potential, which may result in plant wilting; excess concentrations in the cytoplasm can lead to enzyme inhibition, which in turn causes necrosis and chlorosis.[106]

In response, some plants have developed mechanisms to limit sodium uptake in the roots, to store it in cell

Halophytes have adapted to be able to flourish in sodium rich environments.[107]

Safety and precautions

Sodium
Hazards
GHS labelling:
GHS02: FlammableGHS05: Corrosive
Danger
H260, H314
P223, P231+P232, P280, P305+P351+P338, P370+P378, P422[108]
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
[109]
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 3: Short exposure could cause serious temporary or residual injury. E.g. chlorine gasFlammability 2: Must be moderately heated or exposed to relatively high ambient temperature before ignition can occur. Flash point between 38 and 93 °C (100 and 200 °F). E.g. diesel fuelInstability 2: Undergoes violent chemical change at elevated temperatures and pressures, reacts violently with water, or may form explosive mixtures with water. E.g. white phosphorusSpecial hazard W: Reacts with water in an unusual or dangerous manner. E.g. sodium, sulfuric acid
3
2
2
W

Sodium forms flammable hydrogen and caustic sodium hydroxide on contact with water;[110] ingestion and contact with moisture on skin, eyes or mucous membranes can cause severe burns.[111][112] Sodium spontaneously explodes in the presence of water due to the formation of hydrogen (highly explosive) and sodium hydroxide (which dissolves in the water, liberating more surface). However, sodium exposed to air and ignited or reaching autoignition (reported to occur when a molten pool of sodium reaches about 290 °C, 554 °F)[113] displays a relatively mild fire.

In the case of massive (non-molten) pieces of sodium, the reaction with oxygen eventually becomes slow due to formation of a protective layer.[114] Fire extinguishers based on water accelerate sodium fires. Those based on carbon dioxide and bromochlorodifluoromethane should not be used on sodium fire.[112] Metal fires are Class D, but not all Class D extinguishers are effective when used to extinguish sodium fires. An effective extinguishing agent for sodium fires is Met-L-X.[112] Other effective agents include Lith-X, which has graphite powder and an organophosphate flame retardant, and dry sand.[115]

Sodium fires are prevented in nuclear reactors by isolating sodium from oxygen with surrounding pipes containing inert gas.[116] Pool-type sodium fires are prevented using diverse design measures called catch pan systems. They collect leaking sodium into a leak-recovery tank where it is isolated from oxygen.[116]

Liquid sodium fires are more dangerous to handle than solid sodium fires, particularly if there is insufficient experience with the safe handling of molten sodium. In a technical report for the United States Fire Administration,[117] R. J. Gordon writes (emphasis in original)

Once ignited, sodium is very difficult to extinguish. It will react violently with water, as noted previously, and with any extinguishing agent that contains water. It will also react with many other common extinguishing agents, including carbon dioxide and the halogen compounds and most dry chemical agents. The only safe and effective extinguishing agents are completely dry inert materials, such as Class D extinguishing agents,

soda ash, graphite, diatomaceous earth
, or sodium chloride, all of which can be used to bury a small quantity of burning sodium and exclude oxygen from reaching the metal.

The extinguishing agent must be absolutely dry, as even a trace of water in the material can react with the burning sodium to cause an explosion. Sodium chloride is recognized as an extinguishing medium because of its chemical stability, however it is hydroscopic (has the property of attracting and holding water molecules on the surface of the salt crystals) and must be kept absolutely dry to be used safely as an extinguishing agent. Every crystal of sodium chloride also contains a trace quantity of moisture within the structure of the crystal.

Molten sodium is extremely dangerous because it is much more reactive than a solid mass. In the liquid form, every sodium atom is free and mobile to instantaneously combine with any available oxygen atom or other oxidizer, and any gaseous by-product will be created as a rapidly expanding gas bubble within the molten mass. Even a minute amount of water can create this type of reaction. Any amount of water introduced into a pool of molten sodium is likely to cause a violent explosion inside the liquid mass, releasing the hydrogen as a rapidly expanding gas and causing the molten sodium to erupt from the container.

When molten sodium is involved in a fire, the combustion occurs at the surface of the liquid. An inert gas, such as nitrogen or argon, can be used to form an inert layer over the pool of burning liquid sodium, but the gas must be applied very gently and contained over the surface. Except for soda ash, most of the powdered agents that are used to extinguish small fires in solid pieces or shallow pools will sink to the bottom of a molten mass of burning sodium -- the sodium will float to the top and continue to burn. If the burning sodium is in a container, it may be feasible to extinguish the fire by placing a lid on the container to exclude oxygen.

See also

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Bibliography

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