Sodium nitrite

Sodium nitrite
	Chemical structure
Clinical data
AHFS/Drugs.com	FDA Professional Drug Information
Pregnancy; category	AU: Exempt; ;
ATC code	V03AB08 (WHO) ;
Legal status
Legal status	AU: S4 (Prescription only); US: WARNINGRx-only;
Identifiers
JSmol)	Interactive image;
	SMILES N(=O)[O-].[Na+];
	InChI InChI=1S/HNO2.Na/c2-1-3;/h(H,2,3);/q;+1/p-1; Key:LPXPTNMVRIOKMN-UHFFFAOYSA-M;

Sodium nitrite
The nitrite anion (space-filling model)	The sodium cation
	; Unit cell of sodium nitrite under standard conditions
Names
	IUPAC name Sodium nitrite
Identifiers
CAS Number	7632-00-0 ;
3D model ( JSmol)	Interactive image;
ChEBI	CHEBI:78870 ;
ChEMBL	ChEMBL93268 ;
ChemSpider	22689 ;
ECHA InfoCard	100.028.687
EC Number	231-555-9;
E number	E250 (preservatives)
KEGG	D05865;
PubChem CID	23668193;
RTECS number	RA1225000;
UNII	M0KG633D4F ;
UN number	1500 3287
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)	DTXSID0020941 ;
	InChI InChI=1S/HNO2.Na/c2-1-3;/h(H,2,3);/q;+1/p-1 Key: LPXPTNMVRIOKMN-UHFFFAOYSA-M ; InChI=1/HNO2.Na/c2-1-3;/h(H,2,3);/q;+1/p-1 Key: LPXPTNMVRIOKMN-REWHXWOFAO;
	SMILES N(=O)[O-].[Na+];
Properties
Chemical formula	NaNO2
Molar mass	68.9953 g/mol
Appearance	white or slightly yellowish solid
Density	2.168 g/cm3
Melting point	271 °C (520 °F; 544 K) (decomposes at 320 °C)
Solubility in water	71.4 g/100 mL (0 °C) ; 84.8 g/100 mL (25 °C) ; 160 g/100 mL (100 °C)
Solubility	soluble in methanol (4.4 g/100 mL) ; ethanol ; slightly soluble in diethyl ether (0.3 g/100 mL) ; very soluble in ammonia
Acidity (pKa)	~9
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)	−14.5·10−6 cm3/mol
Refractive index (nD)	1.65
Structure
Crystal structure	orthorhombic
Space group	Im2m
Lattice constant	a = 3.5653(8) Å, b = 5.5728(7) Å, c = 5.3846(13) Å
Formula units (Z)	2
Thermochemistry
Std molar; entropy (S⦵298)	106 J/mol K
Std enthalpy of; formation (ΔfH⦵298)	−359 kJ/mol
Gibbs free energy (ΔfG⦵)	−295 kJ/mol
Pharmacology
ATC code	V03AB08 (WHO)
Hazards
	GHS labelling:
Pictograms
Signal word	Danger
Hazard statements	H272, H301, H319, H400
Precautionary statements	P220, P273, P301+P310, P305+P351+P338
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)	3 0 1 OX
Autoignition; temperature	489 °C (912 °F; 762 K)
	Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
LD50 (median dose)	180 mg/kg (rats, oral)
Safety data sheet (SDS)	"Sodium nitrite". Safety Data Sheet. Sigma-Aldrich. 28 December 2022.
Related compounds
Other anions	Sodium nitrate
Other cations	Potassium nitrite; Ammonium nitrite; Lithium nitrite
	Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa). verify (what is ?) Infobox references

Sodium nitrite is an

hygroscopic. From an industrial perspective, it is the most important nitrite salt. It is a precursor to a variety of organic compounds, such as pharmaceuticals, dyes, and pesticides, but it is probably best known as a food additive used in processed meats and (in some countries) in fish products.^[4]

Uses

Industrial chemistry

The main use of sodium nitrite is for the industrial production of organonitrogen compounds. It is a reagent for conversion of

Nitroso compounds are produced from nitrites. These are used in the rubber industry.^[4]

It is used in a variety of metallurgical applications, for phosphatizing and detinning.^[4]

Sodium nitrite is an effective corrosion inhibitor and is used as an additive in industrial greases,^[5] as an aqueous solution in closed loop cooling systems, and in a molten state as a heat transfer medium.^[6]

Food additive and preservative

Sodium nitrite is used to speed up the curing of meat, inhibit the germination of Clostridium botulinum spores, and also impart an attractive pink color.^[7]^[8]^[9] Nitrite reacts with the meat myoglobin to cause color changes, first converting to nitrosomyoglobin (bright red), then, on heating, to nitrosohemochrome (a pink pigment).^[10]

Historically, salt has been used for the preservation of meat. The salt-preserved meat product was usually brownish-gray in color. When sodium nitrite is added with the salt, the meat develops a red, then pink color, which is associated with cured meats such as ham, bacon, hot dogs, and bologna.^[11]

In the early 1900s, irregular curing was commonplace. This led to further research surrounding the use of sodium nitrite as an

microorganisms.^[12] The ability of sodium nitrite to address the above-mentioned issues has led to production of meat with extended storage life and has improved desirable color and taste. According to scientists working for the meat industry,^[13] nitrite has improved food safety.^[12] This view is disputed in the light of the possible carcinogenic effects caused by adding nitrites to meat.^[7]

Nitrite has the E number E250. Potassium nitrite (E249) is used in the same way. It is approved for usage in the European Union,^[14]^[15] USA,^[16] and Australia and New Zealand.^[17]

In meat processing, sodium nitrite is never used in a pure state but always mixed with common salt. This mixture is known as nitrited salt, curing salt or nitrited curing salt. In Europe, nitrited curing salt contains between 99.1% and 99.5% common salt and between 0.5% and 0.9% nitrite. In the US, nitrited curing salt is dosed at 6% and must be remixed with salt before use.^[18]

Color and taste

The appearance and taste of meat is an important component of consumer acceptance.^[12] Sodium nitrite is responsible for the desirable red color (or shaded pink) of meat.^[12] Very little nitrite is needed to induce this change.^[12] It has been reported that as little as 2 to 14 parts per million (ppm) is needed to induce this desirable color change.^[19] However, to extend the lifespan of this color change, significantly higher levels are needed.^[19] The mechanism responsible for this color change is the formation of nitrosylating agents by nitrite, which has the ability to transfer nitric oxide that subsequently reacts with myoglobin to produce the cured meat color.^[19] The unique taste associated with cured meat is also affected by the addition of sodium nitrite.^[12] However, the mechanism underlying this change in taste is still not fully understood.^[19]

Inhibition of microbial pathogens

In conjunction with salt and pH levels, sodium nitrite reduces the ability of

Parma ham, which has been produced without nitrite since 1993, was reported in 2018 to have caused no cases of botulism. This is because the interior of the muscle is sterile and the surface is exposed to oxygen.^[7]

Sodium nitrite has shown varying degrees of effectiveness for controlling growth of other spoilage or disease causing microorganisms.
Gram-negative enteric pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli.^[19]

Other food additives (such as
sorbate) provide similar protection against bacteria, but do not provide the desired pink color.^[21]^[22]

Inhibition of lipid peroxidation

Sodium nitrite is also able to effectively delay the development of oxidative
lipid oxidation that leads to rancidity.^[19]

Medication

Sodium nitrite
Chemical structure
Clinical data
AHFS/Drugs.com FDA Professional Drug Information
Pregnancy
category

AU: Exempt^[23]

ATC code
V03AB08 (WHO)
Legal status
Legal status

AU: S4 (Prescription only)^[25]

US: WARNING^[24]Rx-only

Identifiers
JSmol)
Interactive image

SMILES

N(=O)[O-].[Na+]

InChI

InChI=1S/HNO2.Na/c2-1-3;/h(H,2,3);/q;+1/p-1
Key:LPXPTNMVRIOKMN-UHFFFAOYSA-M

Sodium nitrite is used as a medication together with sodium thiosulfate to treat cyanide poisoning.^[26] It is recommended only in severe cases of cyanide poisoning and has largely been replaced by use of hydroxocobalamin.^[27]
Hydroxycobalamin, a form of vitamin B12, but given in much higher doses than needed nutritionally, has largely replaced the use of NaNO₂ as a CN⁻ antidote.^[28]
In those who have both cyanide poisoning and
slow injection into a vein.^[26]

NaNO₂ side effects are chiefly related to creation of methemoglobinemia and vasodilation. Side effects can include
mitochondria.^[31]

Sodium nitrite came into medical use in the 1920s and 1930s.[32]^[33] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.^[34]

Suicide

Several academic publications in 2020 and 2021 have discussed the toxicity of sodium nitrite, and an apparent recent increase in suicides using sodium nitrite which had been ordered online.
frequently bought together" feature recommended buying sodium nitrite, an antiemetic, and a suicide instruction book together.^[37] This lawsuit was dismissed in June 2023.^[38] The online marketplace eBay has globally prohibited the sale of sodium nitrite since 2019.^[39] Some online vendors of sodium nitrite have been prosecuted for assisting suicide.^[40]^[41] Furthermore, legislation has been introduced in the United States with the aim of deeming sodium nitrite products with a sodium nitrite concentration of greater than 10% by volume to be banned consumer products under the Consumer Product Safety Act.^[42] In cases of suspected suicide involving sodium nitrite, it is critical that responding individuals administer immediate methylene blue.^[43]^[44]^[45] Methylene blue is the antidote to the methemoglobinemia caused by intentional ingestion of sodium nitrite as a suicide agent.^[46]

Toxicity

Sodium nitrite is toxic.
hypoxia, metabolic acidosis, and cyanosis.^[50] The reported^[51]
signs of sodium nitrite poisoning are as follows:

"Symptoms of [nitrite] poisoning can vary depending on the amount and duration of the exposure. Those with very mild methemoglobinemia might not have any symptoms at all, or might appear a little pale and feel tired. Moderate-to-severe poisoning is associated with cyanosis (blueness of the skin), confusion, loss of consciousness, seizures, abnormal heart rhythms, and death."

With prompt action, sodium nitrite poisoning is reversible using an antidote, methylene blue.^[44] It has been reported^[52] that sodium nitrite poisoning can also be detected post-mortem:

"Postmortem detection of [methemoglobinemia] is typically established via screening techniques such as scene evidence suggesting fatal consumption of a toxic salt in addition to the characteristic grey-purple lividity observed upon the body. The diagnosis can be established via postmortem blood testing demonstrating elevated methemoglobin saturation. Additionally, we have confirmed that postmortem MRI in cases of [methemoglobinemia] demonstrates a T1-bright (hyperintense) signal of the blood; both within intracardiac blood on chest MRIs and postmortem blood samples in tubes."

Death by sodium nitrite ingestion can happen at lower doses than the
LD_Lo.^[53]^[54] Sodium nitrite has been used for homicide^[55]^[56] and suicide.^[57]^[58] To prevent accidental intoxication, sodium nitrite (blended with salt) sold as a food additive in the US is dyed bright pink to avoid mistaking it for plain salt or sugar. In other countries, nitrited curing salt is not dyed but is strictly regulated.^[59]

Occurrence in vegetables

Nitrites do not occur naturally in vegetables in significant quantities,[60] but deliberate fermentation of celery juice, for instance, with a naturally high level of nitrates, can produce nitrite levels sufficient for commercial meat curing.^[61] Boiling vegetables does not affect nitrite levels.^[62]
The presence of nitrite in animal tissue is a consequence of metabolism of nitric oxide, an important neurotransmitter.^[63] Nitric oxide can be created de novo from nitric oxide synthase utilizing arginine or from ingested nitrite.^[64]

Pigs

Because of sodium nitrite's high level of toxicity to swine (Sus scrofa) it is now being developed in Australia to control feral pigs and wild boar.^[65]^[66] The sodium nitrite induces methemoglobinemia in swine, i.e. it reduces the amount of oxygen that is released from hemoglobin, so the animal will feel faint and pass out, and then die in a humane manner after first being rendered unconscious.^[67] The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department operates a research facility at Kerr Wildlife Management Area, where they examine feral pig feeding preferences and bait tactics to administer sodium nitrite.^[68]

Cancer

Carcinogenicity is the ability or tendency of a chemical to induce tumors, increase their incidence or malignancy, or shorten the time of tumor occurrence.^[69]

Adding nitrites to meat has been shown to generate known carcinogens such as
Group 1); "processed meat" meaning meat that has been transformed through salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavour or improve preservation.).^[7]^[70]

Nitrosamines can be formed during the curing process used to preserve meats, when sodium nitrite-treated meat is cooked, and also from the reaction of nitrite with secondary amines under acidic conditions (such as occurs in the human stomach). Dietary sources of nitrosamines include US cured meats preserved with sodium nitrite as well as the dried salted fish eaten in Japan. In the 1920s, a significant change in US meat curing practices resulted in a 69% decrease in average nitrite content. This event preceded the beginning of a dramatic decline in gastric cancer mortality.
nitrous anhydride, an unstable nitrogen oxide that cannot exist in vitro.^[76]

Ingesting nitrite under conditions that result in endogenous nitrosation has been classified as "probably carcinogenic to humans" by International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).^[77]^[78]
Sodium nitrite consumption has also been linked to the triggering of migraines in individuals who already experience them.^[79]
One study has found a correlation between highly frequent ingestion of meats cured with
lung disease.^[80]^[81] The study's researchers suggest that the high amount of nitrites in the meats was responsible; however, the team did not prove the nitrite theory. Additionally, the study does not prove that nitrites or cured meat caused higher rates of COPD, merely a link. The researchers did adjust for many of COPD's risk factors, but they commented they cannot rule out all possible unmeasurable causes or risks for COPD.^[82]^[83]

Production

Industrial production of sodium nitrite follows one of two processes, the reduction of nitrate salts, or the oxidation of lower nitrogen oxides.
One method uses molten sodium nitrate as the salt, and lead which is oxidized, while a more modern method uses scrap iron filings to reduce the nitrate.^[4]^[84]

${\ce {NaNO3 + Pb -> NaNO2 + PbO}}$

A more commonly used method involves the general reaction of nitrogen oxides in alkaline aqueous solution, with the addition of a catalyst. The exact conditions depend on which nitrogen oxides are used, and what the oxidant is, as the conditions need to be carefully controlled to avoid over oxidation of the nitrogen atom.^[4]

${\ce {2 NaOH + NO2 + NO -> 2 NaNO2 + H2O}}$

${\ce {2 NaOH + N2O3 -> 2 NaNO2 + H2O}}$

Sodium nitrite has also been produced by reduction of nitrate salts by exposure to heat, light, ionizing radiation, metals, hydrogen, and electrolytic reduction.^[85]

${\ce {NaNO3 + CaSO3 -> NaNO2 + CaSO4}}$

Chemical reactions

Main articles: nitrite and nitrous acid

In the laboratory, sodium nitrite can be used to destroy excess sodium azide.^[86]^[87]

${\ce {2 NaN3 + 2 NaNO2 + 4 H^+ -> 3 N2 + 2 NO + 4 Na^+ + 2 H2O}}$

Above 330 °C sodium nitrite decomposes (in air) to sodium oxide, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide.^[88]

${\ce {2 NaNO2 -> Na2O + NO + NO2}}$

Sodium nitrite can also be used in the production of nitrous acid:

${\ce {2NaNO2 + H2SO4 ->2 HNO2 + Na2SO4}}$

The nitrous acid then, under normal conditions, decomposes:

${\ce {2 HNO2 -> NO2 + NO + H2O}}$

The resulting nitrogen dioxide hydrolyzes to a mixture of nitric and nitrous acids:

${\ce {2 NO2 + H2O -> HNO3 + HNO2}}$

Isotope labelling ¹⁵N

15N isotope enriched NaNO2

In organic synthesis isotope enriched sodium nitrite-¹⁵N can be used instead of normal sodium nitrite as their reactivity is nearly identical in most reactions.
The obtained products carry isotope ¹⁵N and hence nitrogen NMR can be efficiently carried out.^[89]

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Tomsia M, Głaz M, Nowicka J, Szczepański M (July 2021). "Sodium nitrite detection in costal cartilage and vitreous humor - Case report of fatal poisoning with sodium nitrite". Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. 81: 102186.
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Dean DE, Looman KB, Topmiller RG (July 2021). "Fatal methemoglobinemia in three suicidal sodium nitrite poisonings". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 66 (4): 1570–1576.
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McCann SD, Tweet MS, Wahl MS (December 2021). "Rising incidence and high mortality in intentional sodium nitrite exposures reported to US poison centers". Clinical Toxicology. 59 (12): 1264–1269.
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Sedhai YR, Atreya A, Basnyat S, Phuyal P, Pokhrel S (June 2022). "The use of sodium nitrite for deliberate self-harm, and the online suicide market: Should we care?". The Medico-Legal Journal. 90 (2): 79–80.
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Mudan A, Repplinger D, Lebin J, Lewis J, Vohra R, Smollin C (September 2020). "Severe Methemoglobinemia and Death From Intentional Sodium Nitrite Ingestions". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 59 (3): e85–e88.
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Further reading

National Toxicology Program (May 2001). "Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of sodium nitrite (CAS NO. 7632-00-0) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (drinking water studies)". National Toxicology Program Technical Report Series. 495: 7–273.
PMID 12563346
.

External links

"Sodium nitrite". International Chemical Safety Card. IPCS INCHEM. 1120.

Epley RJ, Addis PB, Warthesen JJ (2011). "Nitrite in Meat". University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on 1 January 2011.

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against heparin (Protamine^#)

Other
Arsenic poisoning

Dimercaprol^#

Succimer

Cyanide poisoning

4-Dimethylaminophenol

Hydroxocobalamin

nitrite
Amyl nitrite

Sodium nitrite^#

Sodium thiosulfate^#

Hydrofluoric acid

Calcium gluconate^#

Methanol /
Ethylene glycol
poisoning

Primary alcohols:
Ethanol

Fomepizole

Paracetamol toxicity
(Acetaminophen)

Acetylcysteine^#

Glutathione

Methionine^#

Toxic metals (cadmium

lead

mercury

thallium)

Dimercaprol^#

Edetates

Prussian blue^#

Other

iodine-131
Potassium iodide

Methylthioninium chloride^#

oxidizing agent
Potassium permanganate

Prednisolone/promethazine

Emetic

Copper sulfate

Ipecacuanha

Syrup of ipecac

^#WHO-EM

^‡Withdrawn from market

Clinical trials:
^†Phase III

^§Never to phase III

v
t
e
Sodium compounds
Inorganic
Halides

NaF

NaHF₂

NaCl

NaBr

NaI

NaAt

Chalcogenides

NaO₃

NaO₂

Na₂O

Na₂O₂

NaOH

NaOD

Na₂S

NaSH

Na₂Se

NaSeH

Na₂Te

NaHTe

Na₂Po

Pnictogenides

Na₃N

NaN₃

NaNH₂

Na₃P

Na₃As

Oxyhalides

NaClO

NaClO₂

NaClO₃

NaClO₄

NaBrO

NaBrO₂

NaBrO₃

NaBrO₄

NaIO₃

NaIO₄

Oxychalcogenides

Na₂SO₃

Na₂SO₄

NaHSO₃

NaHSO₄

Na₂S₂O₃

Na₂S₂O₄

Na₂S₂O₅

Na₂S₂O₆

Na₂S₂O₇

Na₂S₂O₈

Na₂SeO₃

Na₂SeO₄

NaHSeO₃

Na₂TeO₃

Oxypnictogenides

NaNO₂

NaNO₃

Na₂N₂O₂

NaH₂PO₄

NaPO₂H₂

Na₂HPO₃

Na₂PO₃F

Na₃PS₂O₂

Na₃PO₄

Na₅P₃O₁₀

Na₄P₂O₇

Na₂H₂P₂O₇

Na₃AsO₃

Na₃AsO₄

Na₂HAsO₄

NaH₂AsO₄

NaSbO₃

Others

NaAlH₄

NaAlO₂

Na₃AlF₆

NaAl(SO₄)₂

NaAuCl₄

Na₂TiF₆

NaBH₄

NaBH₃(CN)

NaBO₂

Na₂B₄O₇

Na₂B₂O₉

Na₂B₈O₁₃

NaBiO₃

NaCN

NaCNO

NaCoO₂

NaH

NaHCO₃

Na₄XeO₆

NaHXeO₄

NaMnO₄

NaOCN

NaReO₄

NaSCN

NaTcO₃

NaTcO₄

NaVO₃

Na₂CO₃

Na₂C₂O₄

Na₂C₃S₅

Na₂CrO₄

Na₂Cr₂O₇

Na₂Cr₃O₁₀

Na₂GeO₃

Na₂He

Na₂[Fe(CO)₄]

Na₂MnO₄

Na₂MoO₄

Na₃IrCl₆

Na₂PtCl₆

Na₂O(UO₃)₂

Na₂S₄O₆

Na₂SiO₃

Na₂TiO₃

Na₂U₂O₇

Na₂WO₄

Na₂Zn(OH)₄

Na₃VO₄

Na₆V₁₀O₂₈

Na₄Fe(CN)₆

Na₃Fe(CN)₆

Na₃Fe(C₂O₄)₃

Na₄SiO₄

Na₂SiF₆

Na₃[Co(NO₂)₆]

NaNSi₆

Na₂PdCl₄

Organic

CH₃ONa

C₂H₅ONa

HCOONa

C₂H₅COONa

C₃H₇COONa

Na₂C₄H₄O₆

C₄H₅NaO₆

NaCH₃COO

NaC₆H₅CO₂

NaC₆H₄(OH)CO₂

NaC₁₂H₂₃O₂

NaC₁₀H₈

Na₂[Fe[CN₅]NO]

C₆H₁₆AlNaO₄

NaC₆H₇O₆

C₅H₈NO₄Na

C₆H₅Na

C₄H₉Na

NaC₅H₅

C₁₅H₃₁COONa

C₁₇H₃₃COONa

C₁₈H₃₅O₂Na

C₁₆₄H₂₅₆O₆₈S₂Na₂

v
t
e
Salts and covalent derivatives of the nitrite ion

HNO₂ He

LiNO₃ Be(NO₃)₂ B C(NO₂)₄,
CH(NO₂)₃,
CH₂(NO₂)₂,
CH₃(NO₂) N(NO₂)₃
H₂NNO₂
xNO₃NO₂ N₂O₃ NO₂F Ne

NaNO₂ Mg(NO₂)₂ Al(NO₂)₃ Si P S NO₂Cl Ar

KNO₂ Ca(NO₂)₂ Sc(NO₂)₃ Ti VO(NO₂)₃ Cr(NO₂)₃ Mn(NO₂)₂ Fe(NO₂)₃ Co(NO₂)₂,
Co(NO₂)₃ Ni(NO₂)₂ Cu(NO₂)₂ Zn(NO₂)₂ Ga(NO₂)₃ Ge As Se NO₂Br Kr

RbNO₂ Sr(NO₂)₂ Y(NO₂)₃ Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd(NO₂)₂ AgNO₂ Cd(NO₂)₂ In Sn Sb Te NO₂I Xe

CsNO₂ Ba(NO₂)₂ Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt(NO₂)₂,
[Pt(NO₂)₄]²⁻ Au Hg₂(NO₂)₂,
Hg(NO₂)₂ TlNO₂ Pb(NO₂)₂ Bi(NO₂)₃
BiO(NO₂) Po At Rn

Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

↓

La(NO₂)₃ Ce(NO₂)₃ Pr(NO₂)₃ Nd(NO₂)₃ Pm Sm(NO₂)₃ Eu(NO₂)₂ Gd(NO₂)₃ Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Ac Th Pa UO₂(NO₂)₂ Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Portal:
Medicine

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sodium_nitrite&oldid=1216588535"

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[43] ISSN 0041-008X
.

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Uses

Industrial chemistry

Food additive and preservative

Color and taste

Inhibition of microbial pathogens

Inhibition of lipid peroxidation

Medication

Suicide

Toxicity

Occurrence in vegetables

Pigs

Cancer

Production

Chemical reactions

Isotope labelling 15N

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

Isotope labelling ¹⁵N