Sogdia
Sogdia, Sogdiana | |
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6th century BC to 11th century AD | |
Sogdia or Sogdiana was an ancient
The
Sogdians also lived in
Geography
Sogdiana lay north of
Name
History
Prehistory
Sogdiana possessed a
This original culture was gradually displaced by the Indo-European migrations of the Iron Age, forming the Andronovo culture (c. 2000–1450 BC), which included Eastern Iranian speaking peoples such as the historical Sogdians.[9]
Young Avestan period (c. 900–500 BC)
In the
The first mention of Gava is found in the Mihr Yasht, ie., the hymn dedicated to the Zoroastrian deity Mithra. In verse 10.14 it is described how Mithra reaches Mount Hara and looks at the entirety of the Airyoshayan (airiio.shaiianem, 'lands of the Arya'),
where navigable rivers rush with wide a swell
towards Parutian Ishkata,Chorasmia.— Mihr Yasht 10.14 (translated by Ilya Gershovitch).[12]
The second mention is found in the first chapter of the Vendidad, which consists of a list of the sixteen good
The second of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the Gava of the Sogdians (gāum yim suγδō.shaiianəm).
Thereupon cameAngra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created the locust, which brings death unto cattle and plants.— Vendidad 1.4 (translated by James Darmesteter).[13]
While it is widely accepted that Gava referred to the region inhabited by the Sogdians during the Avestan period, its meaning is not clear.[14] For example, Vogelsang connects it with Gabae, a Sogdian stronghold in western Sogdia and speculates that during the time of the Avesta, the center of Sogdia may have been closer to Bukhara instead of Samarkand.[15]
Achaemenid period (546–327 BC)
Achaemenid ruler
During this period of Persian rule, the western half of
Given the absence of any named
During the Achaemenid period (550–330 BC), the Sogdians lived as a
Hellenistic period (327–145 BC)
A now-independent and warlike Sogdiana formed a border region insulating the Achaemenid Persians from the nomadic Scythians to the north and east.[26] It was led at first by Bessus, the Achaemenid satrap of Bactria. After assassinating Darius III in his flight from the Macedonian Greek army,[27][28] he became claimant to the Achaemenid throne. The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes, a fortress in Sogdiana, was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great, the basileus of Macedonian Greece, and conqueror of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.[29] Oxyartes, a Sogdian nobleman of Bactria, had hoped to keep his daughter Roxana safe at the fortress of the Sogdian Rock, yet after its fall Roxana was soon wed to Alexander as one of his several wives.[30] Roxana, a Sogdian whose name Roshanak means "little star",[31][32][33] was the mother of Alexander IV of Macedon, who inherited his late father's throne in 323 BC (although the empire was soon divided in the Wars of the Diadochi).[34]
After an extended campaign putting down Sogdian resistance and founding military outposts manned by his Macedonian veterans, Alexander united Sogdiana with Bactria into one satrapy. The Sogdian nobleman and warlord
The military power of the Sogdians never recovered. Subsequently, Sogdiana formed part of the
Saka and Kushan periods (146 BC–260 AD)
Finally Sogdia was occupied by
The Yuezhis were visited in Transoxiana by a Chinese mission, led by Zhang Qian in 126 BC,[47] which sought an offensive alliance with the Yuezhi against the Xiongnu. Zhang Qian, who spent a year in Transoxiana and Bactria, wrote a detailed account in the Shiji, which gives considerable insight into the situation in Central Asia at the time.[48] The request for an alliance was denied by the son of the slain Yuezhi king, who preferred to maintain peace in Transoxiana rather than seek revenge.
Zhang Qian also reported:
the Great Yuezhi live 2,000 or 3,000 li [832–1,247 kilometers] west of
From the 1st century AD, the Yuezhi morphed into the powerful Kushan Empire, covering an area from Sogdia to eastern India. The Kushan Empire became the center of the profitable Central Asian commerce. They began minting unique coins bearing the faces of their own rulers.[46] They are related to have collaborated militarily with the Chinese against nomadic incursion, particularly when they allied with the Han dynasty general Ban Chao against the Sogdians in 84, when the latter were trying to support a revolt by the king of Kashgar.[51]
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Battle scenes between "Kangju" Saka warriors, from the Orlat plaques. 1st century CE.[52]
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Orlat plaque hunter.
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Model of a Saka cataphract armour with neck-guard, from Khalchayan. 1st century BCE. Museum of Arts of Uzbekistan, nb 40.[53]
Sasanian satrapy (260–479 AD)
Historical knowledge about Sogdia is somewhat hazy during the period of the
Hephthalite conquest of Sogdiana (479–557 AD)
The Hephthalites conquered the territory of Sogdiana, and incorporated it into their Empire, around 479 AD, as this is the date of the last known independent embassy of the Sogdians to China.[57][58]
The Hephthalites may have built major fortified
The wealth of the Sasanian ransoms and tributes to the Hephthalites may have been reinvested in Sogdia, possibly explaining the prosperity of the region from that time.
Because of the Hephthalite occupation of Sogdia, the original coinage of Sogdia came to be flooded by the influx of Sasanian coins received as a tribute to the Hephthalites. This coinage then spread along the Silk Road.[57] The symbol of the Hephthalites appears on the residual coinage of Samarkand, probably as a consequence of the Hephthalite control of Sogdia, and becomes prominent in Sogdian coinage from 500 to 700 AD, including in the coinage of their indigenous successors the Ikhshids (642–755 AD), ending with the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana.[62][63]
Turkic Khaganates (557–742 AD)
The Turks of the
Archaeological remains suggest that the
Arab Muslim conquest (8th century AD)
Umayyads (−750)
From 722, following the Muslim invasion, new groups of Sogdians, many of them
Abbasid Caliphate (750–819)
The Umayyads
Samanids (819–999)
The Samanids occupied the Sogdian region from circa 819 until 999, establishing their capital at Samarkand (819–892) and then at Bukhara (892–999).
Turco-Mongol conquests: Kara-Khanid Khanate (999–1212)
In 999 the Samanid Empire was conquered by an Islamic Turkic power, the Kara-Khanid Khanate (840–1212).[81]
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Kara-Khanid medallion with fighting birds, Afrasiab, circa 1200 CE.[82]
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Kara-Khanid bands of inscription with running animals, Afrasiab, circa 1200 CE.[82]
From 1212, the Kara-Khanids in Samarkand were conquered by the
Economy and diplomacy
Central Asia and the Silk Road
Most merchants did not travel the entire
Unlike the empires of antiquity, the Sogdian region was not a territory confined within fixed borders, but rather a network of
Following Zhang Qian's embassy and report, commercial Chinese relations with Central Asia and Sogdiana flourished,
Subsequent to their domination by Alexander the Great, the Sogdians from the city of Marakanda (
During the 5th and 6th century, many Sogdians took up residence in the
Trade and diplomacy with the Byzantine Empire
Shortly after the
It appears, however, that direct trade with the Sogdians remained limited in light of the small amount of
Sogdian traders in the Tarim Basin
The Kizil Caves near Kucha, mid-way in the Tarim Basin, record many scenes of traders from Central Asia in the 5–6th century: these combine influence from the Eastern Iran sphere, at that time occupied by the Sasanian Empire and the Hephthalites, with strong Sogdian cultural elements.[116][117] Sogdia, at the center of a new Silk Road between China to the Sasanian Empire and the Byzantine Empire became extremely prosperous around that time.[118]
The style of this period in Kizil is characterized by strong Iranian-Sogdian elements probably brought with intense Sogdian-Tocharian trade, the influence of which is especially apparent in the Central-Asian
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Dragon-King Mabi saving traders, Cave 14, Kizil Caves
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Two-headed dragon capturing traders, Cave 17
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Sab leading the way for the 500 traders, Kizil Cave 17.
Sogdian merchants, generals, and statesmen in Imperial China
Aside from the Sogdians of Central Asia who acted as middlemen in the Silk Road trade, other Sogdians settled down in China for generations. Many Sogdians lived in Luoyang, capital of the Jin dynasty (266–420), but fled following the collapse of the Jin dynasty's control over northern China in 311 AD and the rise of northern nomadic tribes.[97]
Aurel Stein discovered 5 letters written in Sogdian known as the "Ancient Letters" in an abandoned watchtower near Dunhuang in 1907. One of them was written by a Sogdian woman named Miwnay who had a daughter named Shayn and she wrote to her mother Chatis in Sogdia. Miwnay and her daughter were abandoned in China by Nanai-dhat, her husband who was also Sogdian like her. Nanai-dhat refused to help Miwnay and their daughter after forcing them to come with him to Dunhuang and then abandoning them, telling them they should serve the Han Chinese. Miwnay asked one of her husband's relative Artivan and then asked another Sogdian man, Farnkhund to help them but they also abandoned them. Miwnay and her daughter Shayn were then forced to became servants of Han Chinese after living on charity from a priest. Miwnay cursed her Sogdian husband for leaving her, saying she would rather have been married to a pig or dog.[121][122][123][124][125][126][127][128][129] Another letter in the collection was written by the Sogdian Nanai-vandak addressed to Sogdians back home in Samarkand informing them about a mass rebellion by Xiongnu Hun rebels against their Han Chinese rulers of the Western Jin dynasty informing his people that every single one of the diaspora Sogdians and Indians in the Chinese Western Jin capital Luoyang died of starvation due to the uprising by the rebellious Xiongnu, who were formerly subjects of the Han Chinese. The Han Chinese emperor abandoned Luoyang when it came under siege by the Xiongnu rebels and his palace was burned down. Nanai-vandak also said the city of Ye was no more as the Xiongnu rebellion resulted in disaster for the Sogdian diaspora in China.[130][131] Han Chinese men frequently bought Sogdian slave girls for sexual relations.[132]
Still, some Sogdians continued living in Gansu.[97] A community of Sogdians remained in the Northern Liang capital of Wuwei, but when the Northern Liang were defeated by the Northern Wei in 439 AD, many Sogdians were forcibly relocated to the Northern Wei capital of Datong, thereby fostering exchanges and trade for the new dynasty.[135] Numerous Central Asian objects have been found in Northern Wei tombs, such as the tomb of Feng Hetu.[136]
Other Sogdians came from the west and took positions in Chinese society. The
During the 6–7th centuries AD, Sogdian families living in China created important tombs with funerary epitaphs explaining the history of their illustrious houses. Their burial practices blended both Chinese forms such as carved funerary beds with Zoroastrian sensibilities in mind, such as separating the body from both the earth and water.[139] Sogdian tombs in China are among the most lavish of the period in this country, and are only inferior to Imperial tombs, suggesting that the Sogdian Sabao were among the wealthiest members of the population.[140]
In addition to being merchants, monks, and government officials, Sogdians also served as soldiers in the Tang military.
Sogdians continued as active traders in China following the defeat of the rebellion, but many of them were compelled to hide their ethnic identity. A prominent case was An Chongzhang, Minister of War, and Duke of Liang who, in 756, asked
The
Epitaphs were found dating from the Tang dynasty of a Christian couple in Luoyang of a Nestorian Christian Sogdian woman, who Lady An (安氏) who died in 821 and her Nestorian Christian Han Chinese husband, Hua Xian (花献) who died in 827. These Han Chinese Christian men may have married Sogdian Christian women because of a lack of Han Chinese women belonging to the Christian religion, limiting their choice of spouses among the same ethnicity.[164] Another epitaph in Luoyang of a Nestorian Christian Sogdian woman also surnamed An was discovered and she was put in her tomb by her military officer son on 22 January 815. This Sogdian woman's husband was surnamed He (和) and he was a Han Chinese man and the family was indicated to be multiethnic on the epitaph pillar.[165] In Luoyang, the mixed raced sons of Nestorian Christian Sogdian women and Han Chinese men has many career paths available for them. Neither their mixed ethnicity nor their faith were barriers and they were able to become civil officials, a military officers and openly celebrated their Christian religion and support Christian monasteries.[166]
During the Tang and subsequent
There were nine prominent Sogdian clans (昭武九姓). The names of these clans have been deduced from the
The influence of
Language and culture
The 6th century is thought to be the peak of Sogdian culture, judging by its highly developed artistic tradition. By this point, the Sogdians were entrenched in their role as the central Asian traveling and trading merchants, transferring goods, culture and religion.
Art
The
Language
The Sogdians spoke an
Sogdian was written largely in three scripts: the
The
Clothing
Early medieval Sogdian costumes can be divided in two periods:
For both sexes clothes were tight-fitted, and narrow waists and wrists were appreciated. The silhouettes for grown men and young girls emphasized wide shoulders and narrowed to the waist; the silhouettes for female aristocrats were more complicated. The Sogdian clothing underwent a thorough process of Islamization in the ensuing centuries, with few of the original elements remaining. In their stead, turbans, kaftans, and sleeved coats became more common.[190]
Religious beliefs
The Sogdians practiced a variety of religious faiths. However, Zoroastrianism was most likely their main religion, as demonstrated by material evidence, such as the discovery in Samarkand, Panjakent and Er-Kurgan of murals depicting votaries making offerings before fire altars and
The Sogdian religious texts found in China and dating to the Northern dynasties, Sui, and Tang are mostly Buddhist (translated from Chinese sources), Manichaean, and Nestorian Christian, with only a small minority of Zoroastrian texts.[194] But, tombs of Sogdian merchants in China dated to the last third of the 6th century show predominantly Zoroastrian motifs or Zoroastrian-Manichaean syncretism, while archaeological remains from Sogdiana appear fairly Iranian and conservatively Zoroastrian.[194]
However, the Sogdians epitomized the religious plurality found along the trade routes. The largest body of Sogdian texts are Buddhist, and Sogdians were among the principal translators of Buddhist sutras into Chinese. However, Buddhism did not take root in Sogdiana itself.
The Sogdians also practiced Manichaeism, the faith of
In addition to
Among the Sogdian Christians known in China from inscriptions and texts were An Yena, a Christian from An country (Bukhara). Mi Jifen a Christian from Mi country (Maymurgh), Kang Zhitong, a Sogdian Christian cleric from Kang country (Samarkand), Mi Xuanqing a Sogdian Christian cleric from Mi country (Maymurgh), Mi Xuanying, a Sogdian Christian cleric from Mi country (Maymurgh), An Qingsu, a Sogdian Christian monk from An country (Bukhara).[202][203][204]
When visiting
Slave trade
Sogdian and Chinese merchants regularly traded in slaves in and around Turpan during the Tang dynasty.
Sogdian slave girls and their Chinese male owners made up the majority of Sogdian female-Chinese male pairings, while free Sogdian women were the most common spouse of Sogdian men. A smaller number of Chinese women were paired with elite Sogdian men. Sogdian man-and-woman pairings made up eighteen out of twenty-one marriages according to existing documents.[219][221]
A document dated 731 AD reveals that precisely forty bolts of silk were paid to a certain Mi Lushan, a slave dealing Sogdian, by a Chinese man named Tang Rong (唐榮) of Chang'an, for the purchase of an eleven-year-old girl. A person from Xizhou, a Tokharistani (i.e. Bactrian), and three Sogdians verified the sale of the girl.[219][222]
Central Asians like Sogdians were called "Hu" (胡) by the Chinese during the Tang dynasty. Central Asian "Hu" women were stereotyped as barmaids or dancers by Han in China. Han Chinese men engaged in mostly extra-marital sexual relationships with them as the "Hu" women in China mostly occupied positions where sexual services were sold to patrons like singers, maids, slaves and prostitutes.[223][224][225][226][227][228] Southern Baiyue girls were exoticized in poems.[229] Han men did not want to legally marry them unless they had no choice such as if they were on the frontier or in exile since the Han men would be socially disadvantaged and have to marry non-Han.[230][231][232] The task of taking care of herd animals like sheep and cattle was given to "Hu" slaves in China.[233]
Modern historiography
In 1916, the French
Notable people
- Amoghavajra, prolific translator and one of the most politically powerful Buddhist monks of Chinese history, of Sogdian descent through his mother[236][237]
- An Lushan Rebellion, which lasted from 755 to 763 and led to the decline of the Tang dynasty
- An Qingxu (安慶緒), son of An Lushan
- An Chonghui (安重誨), a minister of China's Later Tang
- An Congjin (安從進), a general of Later Tang and China's Later Jin (Five Dynasties)
- An Chongrong (安重榮), a general of China's Later Jin (Five Dynasties)
- Apama,[38] daughter of Spitamenes (see below) and wife of Seleucus I Nicator, founder of the Seleucid Empire
- Azanes,[20] son of Artaios, who led a contingent of Sogdian troops in the Persian army of Xerxes I during the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC
- Divashtich,[238] 8th-century ruler of Panjakent
- Huayan school
- Gurak,[71] 8th-century ruler of Samarkand
- Kang Senghui (康僧會),[240] Buddhist monk of the 3rd century who lived in Jiaozhi (modern-day Vietnam) during the Three Kingdoms period
- Kang Jing (康景)? – a possible Sogdian who worked at the Ming dynasty Mansion of the Prince of Qin (明朝藩王列表 (秦王系)) as a servant[241][242]
- during the 9th century
- during the 9th century
- Li Baoyu (李抱玉),[141] formerly known as An Chongzhang (安重璋) and ennobled as Duke Zhaowu of Liang (涼昭武公), a general of the Chinese Tang dynasty who fought against the rebellion of An Lushan and the Tibetan Empire
- Mi Fu (米芾),[245] painter, poet, and calligrapher of the Song dynasty
- Malik ibn Kaydar,[246] a 9th-century general of the Abbasid caliphate
- Muzaffar ibn Kaydar, son of Kaydar Nasr ibn 'Abdallah (see above), and yet another Abbasid governor of Egypt during the 9th century
- Oxyartes,[30][31][32] Sogdian warlord from Bactria, follower of Bessus, and father of Roxana, the wife of Alexander the Great
- Roxana,[30][31][32][247] the primary wife of Alexander the Great during the 4th century BC
- Shi Jingtang (石敬瑭),[248] Emperor of China, temple name Gaozu (高祖)
- Spitamenes,[35] a Sogdian warlord who led an uprising against Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC
- Tarkhun,[71] 8th-century ruler of Samarkand
- Abu'l-Saj Devdad, emir and official of the Abbasid caliphate and ancestor of the Sajid dynasty[249]
Diaspora areas
- A community of merchant Sogdians resided in Ye.[250]
- A community of Sogdians existed in Jicheng (Beijing) since at least the time of the Tang dynasty. They were targeted for slaughter by the Tang government during the An Lushan rebellion.[251][252]
- Turkic Khaganate era Inner Mongolia.[253]
See also
Ancient history |
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Preceded by prehistory |
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References
Citations
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- ^ Grenet 2005, p. 30: "Of a total of sixteen countries, seven have always been identified beyond doubt, as they kept their name until historical times or even to the present day. Five of these countries are at the beginning of the list, directly following Airyanem Vaējah: Gava "inhabited by the Sogdians", Merv, Bactria, Nisāya said to be "between Margiana and Bactria" and therefore corresponding at least in part to medieval Juzjān in northwest Afghanistan. Then comes the sixth country, Harōiva [.]"
- ^ Skjaervø 1995, p.166 "The fact that the oldest Young Avestan texts apparently contain no reference to western Iran, including Media, would seem to indicate that they were composed in eastern Iran before the Median domination reached the area.".
- ^ Gershevitch 1967, pp. 79–80.
- ^ Darmesteter 1880, pp. 5–9.
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- ^ Vogelsang 2000, p. 51: "If Gava and Gabae refer to an identical place, then the present text appears to refer to a situation whereby the center of Sogdia was to lie, not at Samarkand, but further to the west, perhaps at or near Bukhara."
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- ^ a b c d Hanks, Reuel R. (2010), Global Security Watch: Central Asia, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford: Praeger, p. 4.
- ISBN 9789004257009.
The ceramics and monetary finds in the pavilion can be dated to no earlier than to the second half of the twelfth century, and more plausibly towards the end of that century. This is the only pavilion of those excavated that was decorated with paintings, which leave no doubt about the master of the place. (...) The whole artistic project was aimed at exalting the royal figure and the magnificence of his court. (...) the main scenes from the northern wall represents the ruler sitting cross-legged on a throne (see Figs 13, 14) (...) It was undoubtedly a private residence of the Qarakhanid ruler and his family and not a place for solemn receptions.
- ISBN 978-8412527858.
Peintures murales qui ornaient (...) la résidence privée des derniers souverains qarakhanides de Samarkande (fin du 12ième - début du 13ième siècle (...) le souverain assis, les jambes repliées sur le trône, tient une flèche, symbole du pouvoir (Fig.171).
- ISBN 9789004257009.
We cannot exclude the possibility that this action was related to the dramatic events of the year 1212, when Samarqand was taken by the Khwarazmshah Muḥammad b. Tekish.
- ^ Hanks, Reuel R. (2010), Global Security Watch: Central Asia, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford: Praeger, pp 4–5.
- ^ ISBN 9789004257009.
The ceramics and monetary finds in the pavilion can be dated to no earlier than to the second half of the twelfth century, and more plausibly towards the end of that century. This is the only pavilion of those excavated that was decorated with paintings, which leave no doubt about the master of the place. (...) The whole artistic project was aimed at exalting the royal figure and the magnificence of his court. (...) It was undoubtedly a private residence of the Qarakhanid ruler and his family and not a place for solemn receptions.
- ISBN 978-1-78477-017-4.
- ISBN 978-1-78477-017-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-520-24340-8.
- ISBN 978-0-670-09362-5.
- ISBN 90-04-14252-5.
- ISBN 978-2-07-076166-1.
- ISBN 90-04-10364-3.
- ^ "Silk Road, North China [Northern Silk Road, North Silk Road] Ancient Trackway : The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map". Megalithic.co.uk. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
- ^ Shiji, trans. Burton Watson
- ^ a b c d Howard, Michael C., Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel, McFarland & Company, 2012, p. 133.
- ^ Hanks, Reuel R. (2010), Global Security Watch: Central Asia, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford: Praeger, p. 3.
- ISBN 0-521-24699-7.
- ^ Ahmed, S. Z. (2004), Chaghatai: the Fabulous Cities and People of the Silk Road, West Conshohocken: Infinity Publishing, pp 61–65.
- ^ a b c d e Howard, Michael C., Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel, McFarland & Company, 2012, p. 134.
- ^ a b c Howard, Michael C., Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel, McFarland & Company, 2012, pp 133–34.
- ^ J. Rose, 'The Sogdians: Prime Movers between Boundaries', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, vol. 30, no. 3, (2010), p. 412
- ^ Grégoire Frumkin (1970), Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia, Leiden, Koln: E. J. Brill, pp 35–37.
- ISBN 0-391-04173-8.
- ^ a b de la Vaissiere, Étienne (2004). "Sogdian Trade". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ISBN 3-89500-532-0.
- ISBN 978-0-19-987590-0.
- ^ a b c Liu, Xinru, "The Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Interactions in Eurasia", in Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History, ed. Michael Adas, American Historical Association, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001, p. 169.
- ISBN 978-0-19-515947-9.
- ^ J. Rose, 'The Sogdians: Prime Movers between Boundaries', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, vol. 30, no. 3, (2010), p. 416
- ^ Wood 2002:66
- ^ a b c Liu, Xinru, "The Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Interactions in Eurasia", in Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History, ed. Michael Adas, American Historical Association, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001, p. 168.
- ^ ISBN 0-520-03765-0.
- ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.
- ISBN 0-415-32089-5.
- ISBN 2-503-52178-9.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3.
- ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, p. 154.
- ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3.
- ^ Hertel, Herbert (1982). Along the Ancient Silk Routes: Central Asian Art from the West Berlin State Museums. pp. 48–49.
- ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2.
- ^ "Sogdiana under its nomadic elites became the principal center of agricultural wealth and population in Central Asia." and paragraph on "The Shift of the Trade Routes" in Vaissière, Etienne de la (212). "Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity: 5 Central Asia and the Silk Road". In S. Johnson (Ed.), Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, P. 142-169. Oxford University Press: 144–160.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2.
- JSTOR 3249023.
- ^ "The Sogdian Ancient Letters 1, 2, 3, and 5". Silk Road Seattle – University of Washington. translated by Prof. Nicholas Sims-Williams.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Norman, Jeremy. "Aurel Stein Discovers the Sogdian "Ancient Letters" 313 CE to 314 CE". History of Information.
- ^ Sogdian Ancient Letter No. 3. Reproduced from Susan Whitfield (ed.), The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith (2004) p. 248.
- ^ "Ancient Letters". The Sogdians – Influencers on the Silk Roads. Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ Keramidas, Kimon. "Sogdian Ancient Letter III: Letter to Nanaidhat". NYU. Telling the Sogdian Story: A Freer/Sackler Digital Exhibition Project.
- ^ "Sogdian letters". ringmar.net. History of International Relations. 5 March 2021.
- ISBN 978-90-47-40699-0.
- ISBN 9789047406990.
- ISBN 9781463222543.
- ^ Sims-Williams, N. (15 December 1985). "Ancient Letters". Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. II. pp. 7–9.
- ^ Keramidas, Kimon. "Sodgian Ancient Letter II". NYU. Telling the Sogdian Story: A Freer/Sackler Digital Exhibition Project.
- ISBN 9782855396538.
- ISBN 978-1-350-18130-4.
- PMID 35027587.
- ISBN 978-981-15-7602-7.
It is evident that when the Northern Wei defeated Northern Liang and seized its capital (439), they captured a large number of Sogdian merchants living in Wuwei and resettled them in Pingcheng (present-day Datong), the capital of the Northern Wei.
- ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1.
- ^ ch. 92, p. 3047
- ^ Vaissière, Étienne de la. "CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS xiii. Eastern Iranian Migrations to China". iranicaonline.org.
- ^ Howard, Michael C., Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel, McFarland & Company, 2012, pp 134–35.
- ISBN 978-2-7226-0516-9.
Ce sont les décors funéraires les plus riches de cette époque, venant juste après ceux de la famille impériale; il est probable que les sabao étaient parmi les éléments les plus fortunés de la population.
- ^ a b c d e f Howard, Michael C., Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel, McFarland & Company, 2012, p. 135.
- ^ J. Rose, 'The Sogdians: Prime Movers between Boundaries', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, vol. 30, no. 3, (2010), p. 417
- JSTOR 4528925.
- ISBN 978-0-19-021842-3.
- ^ Morrow, Kenneth T. (May 2019). Negotiating Belonging: The Church of the East's Contested Identity in Tang China (PDF) (Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of The University of Texas at Dallas in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History of Ideas). The University of Texas at Dallas. pp. 110, 111.
- ISBN 978-90-474-0699-0.
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.978.1069.
- ^ History of An Lushan (An Lushan Shiji 安祿山史記) "唐鞠仁今城中殺胡者重賞﹐於是羯胡盡殪﹐小兒擲於中空以戈_之。高鼻類胡而濫死者甚眾"
- ^ "成德军的诞生:为什么说成德军继承了安史集团的主要遗产" in 时拾史事 2020-02-08
- ^ 李碧妍, 《危机与重构:唐帝国及其地方诸侯》2015-08-01
- ISBN 978-603-8206-39-3. Archived(PDF) from the original on 10 February 2022.
- ^ Qi 2010, p. 221-227.
- ^ Chamney, Lee. The An Shi Rebellion and Rejection of the Other in Tang China, 618–763 (PDF) (A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of History and Classics). University of Alberta Libraries. pp. 91, 92, 93. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 February 2020.
- Old Tang History"至揚州,大掠百姓商人資產,郡內比屋發掘略遍,商胡波斯被殺者數千人" "商胡大食, 波斯等商旅死者數千人波斯等商旅死者數千人."
- S2CID 164239427.
- ISBN 978-3-643-90329-7.
- ISSN 1754-517X.
- ISBN 978-1-78672-316-1.
- doi:10.3390/rel10100551.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - ISBN 978-1-351-67277-1.
- ISBN 978-0-231-55064-2.
- ISBN 978-0-231-55064-2.
- ISBN 978-90-04-15830-6.
- ^ Morrow, Kenneth T. (May 2019). Negotiating Belonging: The Church of the East's Contested Identity in Tang China (PDF) (Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of The University of Texas at Dallas in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History of Ideas). THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT DALLAS. pp. 109–135, viii, xv, 156, 164, 115, 116.
- ^ Morrow, Kenneth T. (May 2019). Negotiating Belonging: The Church of the East's Contested Identity in Tang China (PDF) (Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of The University of Texas at Dallas in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History of Ideas). The University of Texas at Dallas. pp. 155–156, 149, 150, viii, xv.
- ^ Morrow, Kenneth T. (May 2019). Negotiating Belonging: The Church of the East's Contested Identity in Tang China (PDF) (Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of The University of Texas at Dallas in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History of Ideas). The University of Texas at Dallas. p. 164.
- ^ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 870–71.
- ^ Taenzer, Gertraud (2016), "Changing Relations between Administration, Clergy and Lay People in Eastern Central Asia: a Case Study According to the Dunhuang Manuscripts Referring to the Transition from Tibetan to Local Rule in Dunhuang, 8th–11th Centuries", in Carmen Meinert, Transfer of Buddhism Across Central Asian Networks (7th to 13th Centuries), Leiden, Boston: Brill, pp 35–37.
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 249.
- ^ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, p 871.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3.
- ^ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 871–72.
- ^ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, p. 872.
- ^ Chung, Ha-Sung H. "Traces of the Lost 10 Tribes of Israel in Chinese and Korean Sources".
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 870, 873.
- ^ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 872–73.
- ISBN 962-217-721-2.
- ^ Kazuo Enoki (1998), "Yü-ni-ch'êng and the Site of Lou-Lan", and "The Location of the Capital of Lou-Lan and the Date of the Kharoshthi Inscriptions", in Rokuro Kono (ed.), Studia Asiatica: The Collected Papers in Western Languages of the Late Dr. Kazuo Enoki, Tokyo: Kyu-Shoin, pp 200, 211–57.
- ISSN 2157-9687.
- ISBN 0-520-03765-0.
- ISBN 0-520-03765-0.
- ISBN 0-520-03765-0.
- ^ a b c Tafazzoli, A. (2003), "Iranian Languages", in C. E. Bosworth and M. S. Asimov, History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV: The Age of Achievement, A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, p 323.
- ^ Tafazzoli, A. (2003), "Iranian Languages", in C. E. Bosworth and M. S. Asimov, History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV: The Age of Achievement, A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, pp 325–26.
- ISBN 0-520-03765-0.
- ISBN 0-521-20092-X.
- ^ Tafazzoli, A. (2003), "Iranian Languages", in C. E. Bosworth and M. S. Asimov, History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV: The Age of Achievement, A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, p 325.
- ISBN 978-1-84511-283-7.
- ISBN 0-520-03765-0.
- ^ a b Yatsenko, Sergey A. (2003). "The Late Sogdian Costume (the 5th – 8th centuries)". Transoxiana (Webfestschrift Marshak).
- ^ Tobin 113–115
- ^ Lee Lawrence. (3 September 2011). "A Mysterious Stranger in China". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
- ^ Jin, Xu 徐津 (1 January 2019). "The Funerary Couch of An Jia and the Art of Sogdian Immigrants in Sixth-century China". The Burlington Magazine: 824.
- ^ S2CID 144300435.
- ISBN 0-520-03765-0.
- ^ J. Rose, 'The Sogdians: Prime Movers between Boundaries', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, vol. 30, no. 3 (2010), pp. 416–7
- ^ Liu, Xinru (2010), The Silk Road in World History, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, p 67–8.
- ISBN 0-521-24699-7.
- ^ a b Gasparini, Mariachiara. "A Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin", in Rudolf G. Wagner and Monica Juneja (eds), Transcultural Studies, Ruprecht-Karls Universität Heidelberg, No 1 (2014), pp 134–163
- . Retrieved 25 July 2017.
- ^ ISBN 81-8069-457-7, p. 8.
- ISBN 978-3-643-90329-7.
- ^ S.V.D. Research Institute, Monumenta Serica Institute (2009). Monumenta Serica: Journal of Oriental Studies, Volume 57. H. Vetch. p. 120.
The first one is the funerary inscription of another Bukharan Christian, who died during the Jinglong JptH era (707–710) in Guilin ££^, southern China, and whose name was An Yena^Wffi (see Jiang Boqin 1994). The second is the epitaph of the Sogdian gentleman Mi Jifen ^Iffi^ (714–805) from Maymurgh; in his study Ge Chengyong has discovered that Mi's son was a Christian monk and that his family was therefore most probably Christian, too (see Ge Chengyong 2001). Generally ...
- ISBN 88-8227-212-5.
... di almeno un testo cristiano in cinese, il rotolo P. 3847, contenente la traduzione cinese dell'inno siriaco Gloria in excelsis Deo, di cui fu redatta anche una traduzione sogdiana(giunta a noi in frammenti) a Bulayìq (Turfan). L'unico elemento che ci conferma, infine, una assai probabile presenza cristiana in quest'epoca nel sud della Cina, legata ai commerci marittimi, è il ritrovamento presso Guilin (odierno Guangxi) dell'epitaffio funebre del cristiano An Yena, morto tra il 707 e il 709.
- ^ Emmerick, R. E. (2003) "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Ehsan Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 275.
- ^ Emmerick, R. E. (2003) "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Ehsan Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 274.
- ^ Emmerick, R. E. (2003) "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Ehsan Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 274–5.
- ISBN 0-521-24699-7.
- ISBN 0-521-24327-0.
- ISBN 0-8047-0887-8.
- ^ For specific figures in regards to percentage of the population being enslaved, see Frier, Bruce W. (2000). "Demography", in Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone (eds), The Cambridge Ancient History XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 827–54.
- ISBN 90-04-10596-4.
- ISBN 90-04-10596-4.
- ^ Pei, Chengguo (2017). "The Silk Road and the Economy of Gaochang: Evidence on the Circulation of Silver Coins" (PDF). The Silk Road. 15: 40. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 May 2021.
- ^ Xin Tangshu 221a:6230. In addition, Susan Whitfield offers a fictionalized account of a Kuchean courtesan's experiences in the 9th century without providing any sources, although she has clearly drawn on the description of the prostitutes' quarter in Chang'an in Beilizhi; Whitfield, 1999, pp. 138–154.
- ^ Wu Zhen 2000 (p. 154 is a Chinese-language rendering based on Yoshida's Japanese translation of the Sogdian contract of 639).
- ISBN 978-0-19-973413-9.
- ISBN 978-2-85539-653-8.
- ^ a b c Hansen, Valerie. "Les Sogdiens en Chine: The Impact of the Silk Road Trade on a Local Community: The Turfan Oasis, 500–800" (PDF). History.yale.edu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
- ^ Rong, Xinjiang, "New light on Sogdian Colonies along the Silk Road : Recent Archaeological Finds in Northern China (Lecture at the BBAW on 20 September 2001)", in Berichte und Abhandlungen (17 December 2009); 10, S., p. 150.
- ISBN 978-2-85539-653-8.
- ISBN 978-2-85539-653-8.
- ISBN 978-0812201017.
- ISBN 978-0812201017.
- ISBN 978-0812201017.
Katô Hakushi Kanreki Kinen Ronbunshû Kankôkai. 83–91. Tokyo: Fuzanbô. ———. 1948. Tôshi sôshô. Tokyo: Kaname Shohô. ———. 1961. "The hu-chi, mainly Iranian girls, found in China during the Tang period.
- ^ Light, Nathan (1998). Slippery Paths: The Performance and Canonization of Turkic Literature and Uyghur Muqam Song in Islam and Modernity. Indiana University. p. 303.
... see Mikinosuke ISHIDA, " Etudes sino – iraniennes, I : A propos du Hou – siuan – wou, " AIRDTB, 6 ( 1932 ) 61–76, and " The Hu – chi, Mainly Iranian Girls, found in China during the Tang Period, " MRDTB, 20 ( 1961 ) 35–40 .
- ISSN 0742-6836.
... 1033 Chinese Mohammedans, " 9012 " How Can We Best Reach the Mohammedan Women ?, " 6025 " How Islam Entered China, " 1057 " The Hu - Chi, Mainly Iranian Girls Found in China during the Tang Period, " 2010 " The Hui and the ...
- ISBN 9575475399.
... 1033 Chinese Mohammedans, " 9012 " How Can We Best Reach the Mohammedan Women ?, " 6025 " How Islam Entered China, " 1057 " The Hu - Chi, Mainly Iranian Girls Found in China during the Tang Period, " 2010 " The Hui and the ...
- ^ 李, 白. "卷184#越女詞五首 卷一百八十四". 全唐詩.
- ISBN 978-0812201017.
- ISBN 978-0812201017.
- ^ 劉, 昫. "卷193 卷一百九十三". 舊唐書.
- ISBN 978-0812201017.
- ^ a b c Rong, Xinjiang, "New light on Sogdian Colonies along the Silk Road : Recent Archaeological Finds in Northern China (Lecture at the BBAW on 20 September 2001)", in Berichte und Abhandlungen (17 December 2009); 10, S., p. 148.
- ^ Rong, Xinjiang, "New light on Sogdian Colonies along the Silk Road : Recent Archaeological Finds in Northern China (Lecture at the BBAW on 20 September 2001)", in Berichte und Abhandlungen (17 December 2009); 10, S., pp 148–9.
- ^
Lehnert, Martin (2010). Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia. Brill. p. 351. ISBN 978-90-04-20401-0.
- ^ Yang, Zeng (2010). A Biographical Study on Bukong 不空 (aka. Amoghavajra, 705–774) : Networks, Institutions, and Identities (Thesis). University of British Columbia. p. 23. .
- ^ Vohidov, Rahim; Eshonqulov, Husniddin (2006). "III-BOB X X II ASRLAR O'ZBEK ADABIYOTI 3 .1 . X -X II asrlardagi madaniy hayot". O'zbek Mumtoz Adabiyoti Tarixi (Eng qadimgi davrlardan XVI asr oxirigacha) (PDF). O'zbekiston Respublikasi Oliy Va O'rta Maxsus Ta'lim Vazirligi. p. 52.
- ISBN 978-0-521-49781-7.
- ISBN 978-1-56518-098-7.
- ^ Chen (陈), Boyi (博翼) (2011). "10 跋《明秦府承奉正康公墓志铭》"A Sogdian Descendant?—Study of the Epitaph of Kang Jing: The Man Who Served at Ming Prince Qin's Mansion"". Collected Studies on Ming History 明史研究论丛. Vol. 9. China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. pp. 283–297.
- ISBN 978-7-5010-0662-5.
- ISBN 978-0-8156-0195-1.
- ^ Ibn Taghribirdi, Jamal al-Din Abu al-Mahasin Yusuf (1930), Nujum al-zahira fi muluk Misr wa'l-Qahira, Volume II, Cairo: Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyya, p. 218.
- ISBN 978-962-7956-20-4.)
Mi Fu (1052-1107), a Northerner by birth (and of Sogdian heritage) developed a passionate attachment to [...]
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ISBN 0-7914-4795-2.
- ISBN 81-269-0775-4.
- ^ Barenghi, Maddalena (2014). Historiography and Narratives of the Later Tang (923–936) and Later Jin (936–947) Dynasties in Tenth- to Eleventh century Sources (PhD). p. 3-4.
- ^ Clifford Edmund Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual, Columbia University, 1996. pg 147: "The Sajids were a line of caliphal governors in north-western Persia, the family of a commander in the 'Abbasid service of Soghdian descent which became culturally Arabised."
- ISBN 978-0-521-49781-7.
- JSTOR 4528925.
- ISBN 978-0-19-021842-3.
- JSTOR 4527336.
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Further reading
- "The Sogdian Descendants in Mongol and post-Mongol Central Asia: The Tajiks and Sarts" (PDF). Joo Yup Lee. ACTA VIA SERICA Vol. 5, No. 1, June 2020: 187–198doi: 10.22679/avs.2020.5.1.007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2020.
- Sogdian music by the Smithsonian Institution