Soil salinity
Soil salinity is the
Natural occurrence
Salts are a natural component in soils and water.
The ions responsible for salination are: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Cl−.
Over long periods of time, as soil minerals weather and release salts, these salts are flushed or leached out of the soil by drainage water in areas with sufficient precipitation. In addition to mineral weathering, salts are also deposited via dust and precipitation. Salts may accumulate in dry regions, leading to naturally saline soils. This is the case, for example, in large parts of Australia.
Human practices can increase the salinity of soils by the addition of salts in irrigation water. Proper irrigation management can prevent salt accumulation by providing adequate drainage water to leach added salts from the soil. Disrupting drainage patterns that provide leaching can also result in salt accumulations. An example of this occurred in
Sodic soils
When the Na+ (sodium) predominates, soils can become sodic. The
Sodic soils present particular challenges because they tend to have very poor structure which limits or prevents
The term "sodic soil" is sometimes used imprecisely in scholarship. It's been used interchangeably with the term alkali soil, which is used in two meanings: 1) a soil with a pH greater than 8.2, 2) soil with an exchangeable sodium content above 15% of exchange capacity. The term "alkali soil" is often, but not always, used for soils that meet both of these characteristics.[4]
Dry land salinity
Salinity in drylands can occur when the water table is between two and three metres from the surface of the soil. The salts from the groundwater are raised by capillary action to the surface of the soil. This occurs when groundwater is saline (which is true in many areas), and is favored by land use practices allowing more rainwater to enter the aquifer than it could accommodate. For example, the clearing of trees for agriculture is a major reason for dryland salinity in some areas, since deep rooting of trees has been replaced by shallow rooting of annual crops.
Salinity due to irrigation
Salinity from
Salinity in urban areas often results from the combination of irrigation and groundwater processes. Irrigation is also now common in cities (gardens and recreation areas).
Consequences of soil salinity
The consequences of salinity are
- Detrimental effects on plant growth and yield
- Damage to infrastructure (roads, bricks, corrosion of pipes and cables)
- Reduction of water quality for users, sedimentation problems, increased leaching of metals,[6] especially copper, cadmium, manganese and zinc.
- Soil erosion ultimately, when crops are too strongly affected by the amounts of salts.
- More energy required to desalinate
Salinity is an important
Salt tolerance of crops
High levels of soil salinity can be tolerated if salt-tolerant plants are grown. Sensitive crops lose their vigor already in slightly saline soils, most crops are negatively affected by (moderately) saline soils, and only salinity-resistant crops thrive in severely saline soils. The University of Wyoming[10] and the Government of Alberta[11] report data on the salt tolerance of plants.
Field data in irrigated lands, under farmers' conditions, are scarce, especially in developing countries. However, some on-farm surveys have been made in Egypt,[12] India,[13] and Pakistan.[14] Some examples are shown in the following gallery, with crops arranged from sensitive to very tolerant.[15][16]
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Fig. 1. Berseem (clover), cultivated in Egypt's Nile Delta, is a salt-sensitive crop and tolerates an ECe value up to 2.4 dS/m, whereafter yields start to decline.
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Fig. 2. Wheat grown in Sampla, Haryana, India, is slightly sensitive, tolerating an ECe value of 4.9 dS/m.
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Fig. 3. The field measurements in wheat fields in Gohana, Haryana, India, showed a higher tolerance level of ECe = 7.1 dS/m.
(The Egyptian wheat, not shown here, exhibited a tolerance point of 7.8 dS/m). -
Fig. 4. The cotton grown in the Nile Delta can be called salt-tolerant, with a critical ECe value of 8.0 dS/m. However, due to scarcity of data beyond 8 dS/m, the maximum tolerance level cannot be precisely determined and may actually be higher than that.
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Fig. 5. Sorghum from Khairpur, Pakistan, is quite tolerant; it grows well up to ECe = 10.5 dS/m.
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Fig. 6. Cotton from Khairpur, Pakistan, is very tolerant; it grows well up to ECe = 15.5 dS/m.
Calcium has been found to have a positive effect in combating salinity in soils. It has been shown to ameliorate the negative effects that salinity has such as reduced water usage of plants.[17]
Regions affected
From the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World the following salinised areas can be derived.[18]
Region | Area (106 ha) |
---|---|
Africa | 69.5 |
Near and Middle East | 53.1 |
Asia and Far East | 19.5 |
Latin America | 59.4 |
Australia | 84.7 |
North America | 16.0 |
Europe | 20.7 |
See also
- Alkali soil – Soil type with pH > 8.5
- Arabidopsis thaliana responses to salinity
- Biosaline agriculture – Production of crops in salt-rich conditions
- Biosalinity – Use of salty water for irrigation
- Crop tolerance to seawater – Crop tolerance to seawater is the ability of an agricultural crop to withstand the high salinity induced by irrigation with seawater.
- Desalination – Removal of salts from water
- Environmental impacts of deicing salt– Process of removing ice, snow, or frost from a surface
- Halophyte – Salt-tolerant plant
- Halotolerance – Adaptation to high salinity
- Salinity in Australia
- Salt tolerance of crops
- Sodium in biology – Use of Sodium by organisms
- Water softening – Removing positive ions from hard water
- U.S. Salinity Laboratory – National Laboratory for research on salt-affected soil
References
- ^ from "Soil salinity" in WaterWiki, the on-line Knowledge and Collaboration Tool of the Community of Practice (CoP) on Water- and UNDP-related activities in Central and South-Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia. Archived 2007-08-12 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "4. SODIC SOILS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT". www.fao.org. Retrieved 2023-02-08.
- ISBN 978-1-4020-3994-2.
- ISBN 978-93-87869-64-6.
- ^ Effectiveness and Social/Environmental Impacts of Irrigation Projects: a Review (PDF), Annual Report 1988 of the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands: waterlog.info, 1989, pp. 18–34, archived (PDF) from the original on Feb 16, 2024
- ^ "Saltier waterways are creating dangerous 'chemical cocktails'". phys.org. December 3, 2018. Archived from the original on Jul 9, 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-16-061623-5
- ^ "Free articles and software on drainage of waterlogged land and soil salinity control". Retrieved 2010-07-28.
- ^ Salt-Affected Soils and their Management, FAO Soils Bulletin 39 (http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5871e/x5871e00.htm)
- ^ Alan D. Blaylock, 1994, Soil Salinity and Salt tolerance of Horticultural and Landscape Plants. University of Wyoming Archived 2010-05-08 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Government of Alberta, Salt tolerance of Plants Archived 2010-02-21 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ H.J. Nijland and S. El Guindy, Crop yields, watertable depth and soil salinity in the Nile Delta, Egypt. In: Annual report 1983. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands.
- ^ D. P. Sharma, K. N. Singh and K. V. G. K. Rao (1990), Crop Production and soil salinity: evaluation of field data from India. Paper published in Proceedings of the Symposium on Land Drainage for Salinity Control in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions, February, 25th to March 2nd, 1990, Cairo, Egypt, Vol. 3, Session V, p. 373–383. On line: [1]
- ^ R.J. Oosterbaan, Crop yields, soil salinity and water table depth in Pakistan. In: Annual Report 1981, pp. 50–54. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands, reprinted in Indus 24 (1983) 2, pp. 29–33. On line [2]
- ^ "Crop tolerance for soil salinity in farmers' fields". www.waterlog.info. Retrieved 2023-02-08.
- ^ Crop Tolerance to Soil Salinity, Statistical Analysis of Data Measured in Farm Lands. In: International Journal of Agricultural Science, October 2018. On line: [3]
- .
- ^ R. Brinkman, 1980. Saline and sodic soils. In: Land reclamation and water management, pp. 62–68. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands.