Sol Invictus
Sol Invictus | |
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God of the sun | |
Utu |
Sol Invictus (
In recent years, the scholarly community has become divided on Sol between traditionalists and a growing group of revisionists.[7] In the traditional view, Sol Invictus was the second of two different sun gods in Rome. The first of these, Sol Indiges, or Sol, was believed to be an early Roman god of minor importance whose cult had petered out by the first century AD. Sol Invictus, on the other hand, was believed to be a Syrian sun god whose cult was first promoted in Rome under Elagabalus, without success. Some fifty years later, in AD 274, Aurelian established the cult of Sol Invictus as an official religion.[8] There has never been consensus on which Syrian sun god he might have been: some scholars opted for the sky god of Emesa, Elagabal,[4] while others preferred Malakbel of Palmyra.[9][10] In the revisionist view, there was only one cult of Sol in Rome, continuous from the monarchy to the end of antiquity. There were at least three temples of Sol in Rome, all active during the Empire and all dating from the earlier Republic.[11][12][13][14]
Invictus as epithet
An inscription of AD 102 records a restoration of a portico of Sol in what is now the Trastevere area of Rome by a certain Gaius Iulius Anicetus.
Elagabalus
According to the
Aurelian
The Roman
The identity of Aurelian's Sol Invictus has long been a subject of scholarly debate. Based on the
Constantine
Emperors portrayed SOL INVICTUS on their official coinage, with a wide range of legends, only a few of which incorporated the epithet INVICTUS, such as the legend SOLI INVICTO COMITI, claiming the "Unconquered Sun" as a companion to the Emperor, used with particular frequency by Constantine.[f] Statuettes of Sol Invictus, carried by the standard-bearers, appear in three places in reliefs on the Arch of Constantine. Constantine's official coinage continues to bear images of Sol until 325/326. A solidus of Constantine as well as a gold medallion from his reign depict the Emperor's bust in profile twinned (jugate) with Sol Invictus, with the legend INVICTUS CONSTANTINUS[g]
Constantine decreed (March 7, 321)[h] DIES SOLIS – the day of the Sun, "Sunday" – as the Roman day of rest
On the venerable day of the Sun let the magistrates and people residing in cities rest, and let all workshops be closed. In the country however persons engaged in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits because it often happens that another day is not suitable for grain-sowing or vine planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment for such operations the bounty of heaven should be lost.[39][40]
Constantine's triumphal arch was carefully positioned to align with the colossal statue of Sol by the Colosseum, so that Sol formed the dominant backdrop when seen from the direction of the main approach towards the arch.[41]
Sol and later Roman Emperors
Berrens (2004)[13] deals with coin-evidence of Imperial connection to the Solar cult. Sol is depicted sporadically on imperial coins in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, then more frequently from Septimius Severus onwards until AD 325–326. SOL INVICTUS appears on coin legends from AD 261, well before the reign of Aurelian.[i]
Connections between the imperial
Hijmans argues that the Imperial radiate crown represents the honorary wreath awarded to Augustus, perhaps posthumously, to commemorate his victory at the Battle of Actium; he points out that henceforth, living emperors were depicted with radiate crowns, but state divi were not. Hijmans believes this implies that the radiate crown of living emperors is a symbolic link to Augustus. His successors automatically inherited (or sometimes acquired) the same offices and honours due to Octavian as "saviour of the Republic" through his victory at Actium, piously attributed to Apollo-Helios.
Furthermore, radiate crowns were not solely worn by emperors: The wreaths awarded to victors at the Actian Games were radiate.[j]
Festival of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti
In AD 274, the emperor Aurelian instituted the festival Dies Natalis Solis Invicti ('birthday of the Invincible Sun') on 25 December, the date of the winter solstice in the Roman calendar.[45][46] In Rome, this yearly festival was celebrated with thirty chariot races.[46] Gary Forsythe, Professor of Ancient History, says "This celebration would have formed a welcome addition to the seven-day period of the Saturnalia (December 17–23), Rome's most joyous holiday season since Republican times, characterized by parties, banquets, and exchanges of gifts".[46] In AD 362, the emperor Julian wrote in his Hymn to King Helios that the Agon Solis was a festival of the sun held at the end of the Saturnalia in late December.[47][48]
The festival is recorded in the Chronograph of 354 (or Filocalian calendar), which is also the earliest record of 25 December being the birthday of Jesus Christ. Historians generally agree that this part of the text was written in Rome in AD 336.[45]
Wallraff (2001) says there is limited evidence for the festival before the mid-4th century.[49][k][52]
Legacy
Christianity
A widely-held theory is that the Church chose December 25 as Jesus Christ's birthday (Dies Natalis Christi) to appropriate the festival of Sol Invictus's birthday Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, held on the same date.[45][46][53][54]
The early Church linked Jesus Christ to the Sun and referred to him as the 'Sun of Righteousness' (Sol Justitiae) prophesied by
The theory is mentioned in an annotation of uncertain date added to a manuscript by 12th-century Syrian bishop
It was a custom of the Pagans to celebrate on the same 25 December the birthday of the Sun, at which they kindled lights in token of festivity. In these solemnities and revelries, the Christians also took part. Accordingly, when the doctors of the Church perceived that the Christians had a leaning to this festival, they took counsel and resolved that the true Nativity should be solemnised on that day.[56]
Another theory is that Christmas was calculated as nine months after a date chosen as Christ's conception (the Annunciation): March 25, the Roman date of the spring equinox. This theory was first proposed by French writer Louis Duchesne in 1889.[45]
The charioteer in the mosaic of Mausoleum M has been interpreted by some as Christ. Clement of Alexandria had spoken of Christ driving his chariot across the sky.[57] This interpretation is doubted by others: "Only the cross-shaped nimbus makes the Christian significance apparent",[58] and the figure is seen by some simply as a representation of the Sun with no explicit religious reference whatever, pagan or Christian.[59][14]: 567–578
Judaism
The traditional image of the Sun has also been used in early Jewish prophecy, poetry, and art. Psalm 19, begins "The heavens proclaim the glory of God, the firmament proclaims his handiwork", and likens the Sun to a bridegroom, to a warrior, and to the Torah.
An
A mosaic floor in
See also
- Astrological age
- Christ myth theory
- Christian views on astrology
- Christianity and paganism
- Esoteric Christianity
- Saturnalia
- Victory over the Sun
Footnotes
- ^ "Up to the conversion of Constantine the Great, the cult of DEUS SOL INVICTUS received the full support of the emperors: The many coins showing the sun god that these emperors struck provide official evidence of this."[4]: 155 and "the custom of representing DEUS SOL INVICTUS on coins came to an end in AD 323."[4]: 169
- ^ SOLI INVICTO DEO / EX VOTO SUSCEPTO / ACCEPTA MISSIONE / HONESTA EX NUME/RO EQ(UITUM) SING(ULARIUM) AUG(USTI) P(UBLIUS) / AELIUS AMANDUS / D(E)D(ICAVIT) TERTULLO ET / SACERDOTI CO(N)S(ULIBUS)[17]
Publius Aelius Amandus dedicated this to the god Sol Invictus in accordance with the vow he had made, upon his honorable discharge from the equestrian guard of the emperor, during the consulship of Tertullus and Sacerdos;
see[18][4]: 45 - ^ An illustration is provided in[20]: 383, fig.34
- ^ For a full list of the pontifices of Sol see J. Rupke (ed.), Fasti Sacerdotum (2005), p. 606. Memmius Vitrasius Orfitus lists his priesthoods as pontifex of Vesta, one of the quindecimviri sacris faciundis, and pontifex of Sol, in that order.[31] In a list of eight priesthoods, Vettius Agorius Praetextatus puts Pontifex Solis in third place.[32]
- Quirinal, and in Trastevere.[14]: Chapter 5
- Constantine can be found in Berrens (2004).[13]
- ^ The medal is illustrated in Toynbee (1944);[36] the solidus is illustrated in Maurice (n.d.)[37]
- ^ The civil edict of March 7, A.D. 321, was expressly issued by Constantine to command that "all judges and townships and all occupations of trade rest on the venerable day of the sun."[38]
- ^ The coins issued under Elagabalus do not use INVICTUS for Roman Sol, nor for the Emesan Solar deity Elagabalus.[13]
- ^ [14]: 509–548 A mosaic floor in the Baths of the Porta Marina at Ostia depicts a radiate victory crown on a table as well as a victorious competitor wearing one.[44]
- ^ "An inscription of unique interest from the reign of Licinius embodies the official prescription for the annual celebration by his army of a festival of Sol Invictus on December 19".[50] The inscription[51] actually prescribes an annual offering to Sol on November 18 (DIE XIV KAL(ENDIS) DECEMB(RIBUS), i.e., on the fourteenth day before the Kalends of December).
References
- ^ "Necropolis (Scavi) Tomb M". saintpetersbasilica.org. Archived from the original on 2011-07-24. Retrieved 2015-08-25.
- ^ "Sol | Roman god | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-12-12.
- ^ "Sol - Roman God". Mythology.net. 2016-10-21. Retrieved 2022-12-12.
- ^ a b c d e f Halsberghe, Gaston (1972). The Cult of Sol Invictus. Leiden: Brill.
- ^ "Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum CIL VI, 1778 dates from AD 387"[4]: 170, n.3
- ^ Augustine, Sermones, XII;[4]: 170, n.4 also in Ennaratio in Psalmum XXV; Ennaratio II, 3.
- ^ a b c Hijmans, Steven (1996). "The sun that did not rise in the east". Babesch. 71: 115–150.
- ^ "Sol Invictus and Christmas". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-11.
- ^ The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.). 2012. s.v. "Sol".
- ^ Wissowa, Georg (1912). Religion und Kultus der Roemer (2nd ed.). Beck. pp. 365–368 – via Archive.org.
- ^
Hijmans, Steven E. (2010). "Temples and priests of Sol in the city of Rome". Mouseion. 10 (3): 381–427. S2CID 162381004– via researchgate.net.
- ^
Matern, Petra (2002). Helios und Sol: Kulte und Ikonographie des griechischen und römischen Sonnengottes (in German). Ege Yayınları. OCLC 53857589.
- ^ a b c d e f
Berrens, Stephan (2004). Sonnenkult und Kaisertum von den Severern bis zu Constantin I. (193–337 n. Chr.). Historia-Einzelschriften (Wiesbaden, Germany) (in German). Vol. 185. Stuttgart, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag (Geschichte). OCLC 57010712.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-367-3931-3. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2012-02-25. Retrieved 2021-06-17. p. 18, with citations from the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
- ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum CIL VI, 31181
- ^ Hijmans (2009)[14]: Chapter 1 (a reworking of Hijmans (1996)); Matern (2001)[full citation needed]; Wallraff (2002)[full citation needed]; and Berrens (2004);[13] all follow Hijmans.
- ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum CIL VI, 715 "CIL-VI-715 photograph". Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2009-11-12.
- ^ Campbell, J. (1994). The Roman army, 31 BC–AD 337: A sourcebook. p. 43.
- ^ Guarducci, M. (1957–1959). "Sol invictus Augustus". Rendiconti della Pont. 3rd series. 30–31. Accademia Romana di Archeologia: 161 ff.
- ^ Kantorowicz, E.H. (August 1961). "Gods in Uniform". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 105 (4): 368–393.
- ^
Brill, E.J. (1993). The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the ruler cult of the western provinces of the Roman Empire (Second ed.). E.J. Brill. p. 87. ISBN 90-04-07180-6. Retrieved 29 May 2020 – via Google Books.
- ^ Ulansey, David (1989). The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries. Oxford University Press. p. 107.
- ^ Salzman, Michele Renee (2004). "Pagan and Christian notions of the week in the 4th century CE western Roman Empire". Time and Temporality in the Ancient World. Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. University of Pennsylvania. p. 192.
- ^ a b Alvar, Jaime (2008). Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, salvation, and ethics in the cults of Cybele, Isis, and Mithras. Translated by Gordon, Richard. Brill. p. 100.
- ^ "Latin text". Historia Augusta. Translated by Thayer (English translation ed.). Loeb. 1, 5 – via Penelope, University of Chicago.
- ^ See in particular Halsberghe (1972).
- ^ Matern (2001)[full citation needed]
- ^ Wallraff (2002)[full citation needed]
- ^ [27][28]
- ^
Richard, J.C. (1976). "Le culte de Sol et les Aurelii: À propos de Paul Fest. p. 22 L.". Mélanges offerts à Jacques Heurgon: L'Italie préromaine et la Rome républicaine. Rome. pp. 915–925.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum CIL VI, 1739–CIL VI, 1742
- ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum CIL VI, 1779
- ISBN 978-3-406-47288-6.
- ^
Dirven, Lucinda (1999). The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: A study of religious interaction in Roman Syria. Brill. p. 169. ISBN 978-9004115897. Archivedfrom the original on 2015-12-08.
- ^ a b
Forsythe, Gary, Professor (2012). Time in Roman Religion: One thousand years of religious history. Routledge. pp. 142–143. ISBN 978-0415522175.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ Toynbee, Jocelyn M.C. (1987) [1944]. Roman Medallions (reprint ed.). plate xvii, nr. 11.
- ^ Maurice, J. (n.d.). Numismatique Constantinienne. Vol. II. p. 236. plate vii, nr. 14.[full citation needed]
- ^ Odom, Robert L. (May 1950). "Pagan Sunday observance" (PDF). Ministry. Query column. Philippine Publishing House. pp. 18–19. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
- ^ Schaff, Philip (1867). From Constantine the Great to Gregory the Great, A.D. 311-600. C. Scribner. p. 380. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
- ^ Excellent discussion of this decree by Wallraff (2002) 96–102.[full citation needed]
- ^
Marlowe, E. (2006). "Framing the sun: The Arch of Constantine and the Roman cityscape". Art Bulletin. 88 (2): 223–242. S2CID 191508817.
- ^ a b Bergmann (1998), [no title cited][full citation needed]
- ^ Hijmans, Steven E. (23–26 August 2003). "Metaphor, Symbol and Reality: the Polysemy of the Imperial Radiate Crown". In Mattusch, C.C. (ed.). Common ground. Archaeology, art, science, and humanities. The XVIth International Congress of Classical Archaeology. Boston, MA: Oxford (published 2006). pp. 440–443.
- ^ "Regio IV – Insula X – Terme di Porta Marina (IV, X, 1–2)". Archived from the original on 2008-11-09. Retrieved 2009-11-12.
- ^ a b c d Bradshaw, Paul (2020). "The Dating of Christmas". In Larsen, Timothy (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Christmas. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–10.
- ^ a b c d Forsythe, Gary (2012). Time in Roman Religion: One Thousand Years of Religious History. Routledge. p. 141.
- ^ Elm, Susanna (2012). Sons of Hellenism, Fathers of the Church. University of California Press. p. 287.
- ^ Remijsen, Sofie (2015). The End of Greek Athletics in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. p. 133.
- ^ Wallraff (2001) 174–177 [full citation needed]
- ^ Hoey (1939) 480 [full citation needed]
- ^ Dessau. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae. 8940.[full citation needed]
- ^ "Online text of inscription, Parts 6 and 12". tertullian.org. Archived from the original on 2007-12-04.
- ^ a b Kelly, Joseph F., The Origins of Christmas, Liturgical Press, 2004, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Roll, Susan K. (1995). Towards the Origin of Christmas. Kok Pharos Publishing. pp. 107–108.
- ^ Jeffrey, David Lyle (1992). A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature. Eerdmans. p. 141.
- ^ Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Ramsay MacMullen. Yale:1997, p. 155).
- ^
Webb, Matilda (2001). The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome. Sussex Academic Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-90221058-2.
- ^
Kemp, Martin (2000). The Oxford History of Western Art. Oxford University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-19860012-1. emphasis added
- ^
Hijmans, S (2003). "Sol Invictus, the winter solstice, and the origins of Christmas". Mouseion Calgary. 47 (3): 377–398. OCLC 202535001.
- ^
Cartlidge, David R.; Elliott, James Keith (2001). The Art of Christian Legend. Routledge. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-41523392-7.
- ^
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
External links
- "Sol". Encyclopædia Britannica (Online ed.).
- Miles, Clement A. (1912). "December 25 and the Natalis Invicti". Christmas in Ritual and Tradition, Christian and Pagan.
- "Christmas". Catholic Encyclopedia. 1908.
- "Sol Invictus". tertullian.org. Ancient sources.