Solid-state physics
Solid-state physics is the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as solid-state chemistry, quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy. It is the largest branch of condensed matter physics. Solid-state physics studies how the large-scale properties of solid materials result from their atomic-scale properties. Thus, solid-state physics forms a theoretical basis of materials science. Along with solid-state chemistry, it also has direct applications in the technology of transistors and semiconductors.
Background
Solid materials are formed from densely packed atoms, which interact intensely. These interactions produce the mechanical (e.g.
The bulk of solid-state physics, as a general theory, is focused on crystals. Primarily, this is because the periodicity of atoms in a crystal — its defining characteristic — facilitates mathematical modeling. Likewise, crystalline materials often have electrical, magnetic, optical, or mechanical properties that can be exploited for engineering purposes.
The forces between the atoms in a crystal can take a variety of forms. For example, in a crystal of
History
The physical properties of solids have been common subjects of scientific inquiry for centuries, but a separate field going by the name of solid-state physics did not emerge until the 1940s, in particular with the establishment of the Division of Solid State Physics (DSSP) within the American Physical Society. The DSSP catered to industrial physicists, and solid-state physics became associated with the technological applications made possible by research on solids. By the early 1960s, the DSSP was the largest division of the American Physical Society.[1][2]
Large communities of solid state physicists also emerged in Europe after World War II, in particular in England, Germany, and the Soviet Union.[3] In the United States and Europe, solid state became a prominent field through its investigations into semiconductors, superconductivity, nuclear magnetic resonance, and diverse other phenomena. During the early Cold War, research in solid state physics was often not restricted to solids, which led some physicists in the 1970s and 1980s to found the field of condensed matter physics, which organized around common techniques used to investigate solids, liquids, plasmas, and other complex matter.[1] Today, solid-state physics is broadly considered to be the subfield of condensed matter physics, often referred to as hard condensed matter, that focuses on the properties of solids with regular crystal lattices.
Crystal structure and properties
Many properties of materials are affected by their crystal structure. This structure can be investigated using a range of crystallographic techniques, including X-ray crystallography, neutron diffraction and electron diffraction.
The sizes of the individual crystals in a crystalline solid material vary depending on the material involved and the conditions when it was formed. Most crystalline materials encountered in everyday life are
Real crystals feature defects or irregularities in the ideal arrangements, and it is these defects that critically determine many of the electrical and mechanical properties of real materials.
Electronic properties
Properties of materials such as
Arnold Sommerfeld combined the classical Drude model with quantum mechanics in the free electron model (or Drude-Sommerfeld model). Here, the electrons are modelled as a Fermi gas, a gas of particles which obey the quantum mechanical Fermi–Dirac statistics. The free electron model gave improved predictions for the heat capacity of metals, however, it was unable to explain the existence of insulators.
The nearly free electron model is a modification of the free electron model which includes a weak periodic perturbation meant to model the interaction between the conduction electrons and the ions in a crystalline solid. By introducing the idea of electronic bands, the theory explains the existence of conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
The nearly free electron model rewrites the
Modern research
Modern research topics in solid-state physics include:
- High-temperature superconductivity
- Quasicrystals
- Spin glass
- Strongly correlated materials
- Two-dimensional materials
- Nanomaterials
See also
References
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 2019-12-14.
- ISBN 9780195053296.
- S2CID 122917133.
Further reading
- Neil W. Ashcroft and N. David Mermin, Solid State Physics (Harcourt: Orlando, 1976).
- Charles Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics (Wiley: New York, 2004).
- H. M. Rosenberg, The Solid State (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1995).
- Steven H. Simon, The Oxford Solid State Basics (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2013).
- Out of the Crystal Maze. Chapters from the History of Solid State Physics, ed. Lillian Hoddeson, Ernest Braun, Jürgen Teichmann, Spencer Weart (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
- M. A. Omar, Elementary Solid State Physics (Revised Printing, Addison-Wesley, 1993).
- Hofmann, Philip (2015-05-26). Solid State Physics (2 ed.). Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3527412822.