Solifugae
Solifugae Temporal range: [1]
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Solifuge from Arizona | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Subphylum: | Chelicerata |
Class: | Arachnida |
Order: | Solifugae Sundevall, 1833 |
Solifugae is an
Anatomy
Solifuges are moderately small to large arachnids (a few millimeters to several centimeters in body length), with the larger species reaching 12–15 cm (5–6 in) in length, including legs.[2][3] In practice, the respective lengths of the legs of various species differ greatly, so the resulting figures are often misleading. More practical measurements refer primarily to the body length, quoting leg lengths separately, if at all. The body length is up to 7 cm (3 in).[4][5] Most species are closer to 5 cm (2 in) long, and some small species are under 1 cm (0.4 in) in head-plus-body length when mature.[6]
Like that of the spider order, the Araneae, the body plan of the Solifugae has two main
The prosoma comprises the head, the mouthparts, and the
Currently, neither fossil nor embryological evidence shows that arachnids ever had a separate thorax-like division, so the validity of the term cephalothorax, which means a fused
Like other arachnids outside the orders of
Chelicerae
Among the most distinctive features of the Solifugae are their large chelicerae, which in many species are longer than the prosoma. Each of the two chelicerae has two articles (segments, parts connected by a joint),[13] forming a powerful pincer, much like that of a crab; each article bears a variable number of teeth, largely depending on the species.[6][9] The chelicerae of many species are surprisingly strong; they are capable of shearing hair or feathers from vertebrate prey or carrion, and of cutting through skin and thin bones such as those of small birds.[14] Many Solifugae stridulate with their chelicerae, producing a rattling noise.[3]
Legs and pedipalps
These elements work the same way as in most other arachnids. Although the Solifugae appear to have five pairs of legs, only the hind four pairs are true legs. Each true leg has seven segments: coxa, trochanter, femur, patella, tibia, metatarsus, and tarsus.[14][15]
The first, or anterior, of the five pairs of leg-like appendages are not "actual" legs, but
For the most part, only the posterior three pairs of legs are used for running.[9][14] On the undersides of the coxae and trochanters of the last pair of legs, the Solifugae have fan-shaped sensory organs called malleoli or racquet (or racket) organs. Sometimes, the blades of the malleoli are directed forward, sometimes not. They have been suspected to be sensory organs for the detection of vibrations in the soil, perhaps to detect threats and potential prey or mates.[14] These structures may be chemoreceptors.[18]: 66
Males are usually smaller than females, with relatively longer legs.[3] Unlike females, the males bear a pair of flagella, one on each chelicera. In the accompanying photograph of a male solifuge, one flagellum is just visible near the tip of each chelicera. The flagella, which bend back over the chelicerae, are sometimes called horns and are believed to have some sexual connection, but their function has not yet been clearly explained.[14]
Eyes
Some species have very large central eyes. They look like simple eyes or ocelli, but are quite sophisticated. They can recognise forms, and are used in hunting and avoiding enemies. These eyes may represent the last step in the integration of the aggregate of simple ocelli into a compound eye, and of further integration of a compound eye into a simple eye.[19] Lateral vestigial eyes can be found inserted into pits on the inner side of the cuticle. The lenses of these eyes are usually atrophied, but in some species there are both nerves and pigment cells present, and their function could be to detect motions or changes in light intensity.[20]
Classification and Phylogeny
The Solifugae are an
- Ammotrechidae Roewer, 1934
- Ceromidae Roewer, 1933
- Daesiidae Kraepelin, 1899
- Dinorhaxidae (Roewer, 1933)
- Hexisopodidae Pocock, 1897
- Lipophagidae (Wharton, 1981)
- Melanoblossiidae Roewer, 1933
- Mummuciidae Roewer, 1934
- Namibesiidae (Wharton, 1981)
- Solpugidae Leach, 1815
Suborder Boreosolifugae
- Eremobatidae Kraepelin, 1901
- Galeodidae Sundevall, 1833
- Gylippidae Roewer, 1933
- Karschiidae Kraepelin, 1899
- Rhagodidae Pocock, 1897
incertae sedis
- †ProtosolpugidaePetrunkevitch, 1953
In 2023, the internal phylogeny of solifuges was resolved for the first time using phylogenomics.[23] The molecular phylogeny of the order showed evidence for two groups of families, which were recognized as suborders. Boreosolifugae comprises five families predominantly from the Northern Hemisphere (Eremobatidae, Gylippidae, Karschiidae, Galeodidae, and Rhagodidae). Australosolifugae comprises seven families predominantly from the Southern Hemisphere (Ammotrechidae, Ceromidae, Daesiidae, Hexisopodidae, Melanoblossidae, Mummuciidae, and Solpugidae). Daesiidae and Ammotrechidae were both recovered as non-monophyletic, due to the nested position of Melanoblossidae inside Daesiidae, and the nested position of Mummuciidae inside Ammotrechidae. A subsequent genomic study established three additional families: Dinorhaxidae (formerly within Melanoblossidae) was recovered as part of Boreosolifugae; and Lipophagidae (formerly within Gylippidae) and Namibesiidae (formerly within Daesiidae) were recovered as part of Australosolifugae.[22] This phylogeny is considered congruent with a Gondwanan origin for Australosolifugae and a Laurasian origin for Boreosolifugae.[23]
Ecology
Although the Solifugae are considered to be endemic indicators of
Solifugae species are
Various other predators, such as the large slit-faced bat, scorpions, toads, and insectivores, may prey on the Solifugae.
Life cycle
The Solifugae are typically
The female then digs a burrow, into which she lays 50 to 200 eggs; some species then guard them until they hatch. Because the female does not feed during this time, she tries to fatten herself beforehand, and a species of 5 cm (2.0 in) has been observed to eat more than 100 flies during that time in the laboratory.[3] The Solifugae undergo a number of stages including, egg, postembryo, 9–10 nymphal instars, and adults.[6]
Etymology
The name Solifugae derives from Latin, and means "those that flee from the sun". The order is also known by the names Solpugida, Solpugides, Solpugae, Galeodea, and Mycetophorae. Their common names include camel spider, wind scorpion, scorpion carrier, jerrymunglum,[24] sun scorpion, and sun spider. In southern Africa, they are known by a host of names, including red romans, haarskeerders ("hair cutters"), and baardskeerders ("beard cutters"), the latter two relating to the belief they use their formidable jaws to clip hair from humans and animals to line their subterranean nests.[25]
Solifuges and humans
Solifuges have been recognized as distinct taxa from ancient times. In
Urban legends
The Solifugae are the subject of many legends and exaggerations about their size, speed, behavior, appetite, and lethality. They are not especially large, the biggest having a leg span around 12 cm (4.7 in).[3] They are fast on land compared to other invertebrates, with their top speed estimated to be 16 km/h (10 mph),[2] close to half as fast as the fastest human sprinter.[27]
The Solifugae apparently have neither
Because of their unfamiliar spider-like appearance and rapid movements, Solifugae have startled or even frightened many people. This fear was sufficient to drive a family from their home when one was allegedly discovered in a soldier's house in Colchester, England, and caused the family to blame the solifuge for the death of their pet dog.[30] An Arizona resident developed painful lesions due to a claimed solifuge bite but could not produce a specimen for confirmation.[31] Though they are not venomous, the powerful chelicerae of a large specimen may inflict a painful nip, but nothing medically significant.[32]
Claims that Solifugae aggressively chase people are also untrue, as they are merely trying to stay in the shade/shadow provided by the human.[33]
References
- ^ "Solifugae (camel spider)". Paleobiology Database.
- ^ a b "Egyptian giant solpugid (camel spider) Galeodes arabs". National Geographic. 11 April 2010. Archived from the original on January 21, 2010. Retrieved June 10, 2011.
- ^ ISBN 3-89432-405-8.
- ISBN 0-697-13712-0.
- ISBN 978-0-12-372500-4.
- ^ ISBN 0-7923-8155-6. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
- ^ The Biology Of Camel-spiders: Arachnida, Solifugae
- .
- ^ ISBN 0-03-056747-5.
- ISBN 978-0-7641-3885-0.
- ISBN 9783662103968.
- PMID 31847768.
- ISBN 0-19-861271-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0799346893.
- ISBN 1-86825-188-8.
- ^ A sticky situation: Solifugids (Arachnida, Solifugae) use adhesive organs on their pedipalps for prey capture
- ^ Harmer, Sir Sidney Frederic; Shipley, Arthur Everett et alia: The Cambridge natural history Volume 4, Crustacea, Trilobites, Arachnida, Tardigrada, Pentastomida etc. Macmillan Company 1895
- ISBN 9781461557272.
- ISBN 0226041751.
- ^ The Biology of Camel-Spiders: Arachnida, Solifugae
- ^ "World Solifugae Catalog". World Solifugae Catalog. Natural History Museum Bern. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
- ^ S2CID 266166984.
- ^ PMID 37694155.
- ^ Skaife, Sydney Harold; South African Nature Notes, Second edition. Pub: Maskew Miller: Cape Town, 1954.
- ^ Ross Piper (2007). Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals. Greenwood Press.
- ^ "Aelian, NA. 17.40". attalus.org. Retrieved March 6, 2019. - where they are called "four-jawed spiders".
- ^ "IAAF (International Association of Athletics Federations) Biomechanical Research Project: Berlin 2009" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-05-14. Retrieved 2013-11-18.
- ^ Universität Greifswald.
- ^ Aruchami, M.; Sundara Rajulu, G. (1978). "An investigation on the poison glands and the nature of the venom of Rhagodes nigrocinctus (Solifugae: Arachnida)". Natl. Acad. Sci. Lett. 1: 191–192.
- ^ Siddique, Haroon (2008-08-28). "Paratrooper's family flees home after Afghan spider 'kills dog'". The Guardian. Retrieved 2019-08-01.
- ^ Sung, Jenny (July 27, 2017). "Mystery bug bite leaves Arizona man covered in bruises, 'excruciating pain'". Global News. Archived from the original on 2022-08-04. Retrieved July 27, 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-9558636-3-9.
- ^ Szalay, Jessie (17 December 2014). "Camel Spiders: Facts & Myths". livescience.com. Purch Group. Live Science. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
Videos
- Camel Spider Feeding by Stefan F. Wirth
External links
- "The Arachnid Order Solifugae". Warren Savary.
- Mikkelson, Barbara & David P. "Camel Spiders" at Snopes.com: Urban Legends Reference Pages.
- "Camel Spiders: Behind an E-Mail Sensation From Iraq". National Geographic. June 29, 2004. Archived from the original on July 1, 2004.