Soluntum
Solunto | |
Alternative name | Solus |
---|---|
Location | Santa Flavia, Province of Palermo, Sicily, Italy |
Coordinates | 38°04′27″N 13°32′29″E / 38.07417°N 13.54139°E |
Type | Settlement |
Area | 10 ha (25 acres) |
Site notes | |
Management | Soprintendenza BB.CC.AA. di Palermo |
Public access | Yes |
Website | Area Archeologica e Antiquarium di Solunto (in Italian) |
Soluntum or Solus was an ancient city on the
Names
The Punic name of the town was simply Kapara (𐤊𐤐𐤓𐤀, KPRʾ), meaning "Village".[1]
The
name Solunto.Geography
Soluntum lay 183 m (600 ft) above sea level on the southeast side of Monte Catalfano (373 m or 1,225 ft), commanding a fine view from a naturally-strong situation.[6] It is immediately to the east of the bold promontory called Capo Zafferano. It was about 16 km (9.9 mi) east of ancient Panormus (modern Palermo). The city covers an area of about 10 ha (25 acres), around half of which has been excavated.
History
The
The location of the archaic city has long been uncertain. No archaic remains have been found in the excavations at Soluntum, so it is clear that it was not located on the same site as the later city.[9] Recent excavations revealed a Punic necropolis at Capo Solanto to the south of the city, with remains from the sixth and fifth centuries BC, and this is now believed to have been the location of the archaic city.[10]
In 409 BC, the Carthaginians
Roman period
For the first half of the
The location of the city atop Monte Catalfano made it easy to defend, but difficult to supply with goods and food. In the
A decline is observed in the first century AD. There was no notable construction in this period, except that the baths were renovated and new ones may have been built by the Agora. It is mentioned in passing in the first century AD by
There are some Greek inscriptions from the city naming prominent citizens. One of them records that Antallus son of Asclapus from the family of the Ornichi paid for the main street to be paved from his own funds.[24][25] Another one names Sextus Peduceus, who was governor of Sicily from 76 to 75 BC:[26]
Τὸ κοιν[ὸν- - ? - -] |
The League ... (honours) |
—ISic003419[27] |
A Latin
Coinage
The city minted its own coinage, including numerous silver coins. The coins of the fifth century BC bear the Punic legend kpr or the Greek name ΣΟΛΟΝΤΙΝΟΝ. The silver coins were mostly
Excavations and remains
Cavalleri's excavations were continued by Antonino Salinas, who published the first detailed reports. Minor excavations by Ettore Gábrici in 1920 only revealed a few rooms inside the city. Vincenzo Tusa began excavations in 1951. He found the "House of Leda" in 1953, the theatre in 1963, and the "House of Harpocrates" around 1970. One reason for the intensification of excavations was the potential seen for the ruins to become a tourist attraction. No final publication of Tusa's excavations has ever been published. Some of the artefacts recovered (especially the coins) are now kept in the Antonino Salinas Regional Archaeological Museum in Palermo; the rest is on display in the museum at the site.
Starting in 1964, the city was excavated by the German Archaeological Institute of Rome. Under Helmut Schläger, the architecture of the agora was investigated, but Schlager's early death prevented publication of the results. From 1988, Armin Wiegand investigated the theatre, eventually publishing a study of the building[32] Markus Wolf has worked on the agora[33] and the houses of the city, with a special focus on the gymnasium.[34] In 2014, Alberto Sposito published an architectural study, presenting all excavated buildings and the current state oft heir remains.[35]
Overview
The city is located on the east slope of Monte Catalfano. The highest point of the city is some 60 metres above the lowest point. Despite the uneven terrain, the city's streets were laid out in a regular grid-pattern, in accordance with the
It is uncertain when this Hippodamian grid pattern was imposed upon the city. Below the theatre are remains of an earlier house which is not aligned with this grid. This seems to indicate that it belongs to an earlier stage in the city's history before the grid pattern. Armin Wiegend suggested that the grid pattern was imposed when the Greek soldiers of Agathocles settled there in 307 BCE.[36]
Although the overall character of the city is Greco-Roman, there are also elements that researchers have attributed to Punic cultural background, especially in the religious sphere. The city had no
Public buildings
City walls
Thanks to the favourable location of the city atop a steep slope, the city did not need a full circuit wall. In the south and west there are sheer cliffs. In the north, the slope has been worn away with the passage of time and part of the city has gone with it. It thus remains unclear, whether a there was ever a wall along this side. A wall with towers is attested with certainty only in the east and northwest sides of the city.
To the southeast of the city, where the road winds up the slope from the shore, there are remains of fortifications along the road. It could be that these are the remains of a tower, but the area has never been excavated. Further remains are found to the northwest of the city, on the edge of the cliff, where part of the city has eroded away. There are remains of a wall and a rectangular tower there, as well as a large cistern which might also have been part of a fort. Next to it is an old road, leading up to the very top of the mountain. Excavations in 1875 in the easternmost part of the city, where there is a good view out of the sea, revealed an altar and other structures. Perhaps the city's harbours were watched from here.[38]
Bathhouse
The remains of the bathhouse are located at the south end of the city. The small building consisted of four large rooms and some smaller side-rooms. At the south end there was an open courtyard, next to the frigidarium which was originally decorated with a geometric mosaic - now completely destroyed. North of this was the tepidarium, with an apse on the western side, then the caldarium and the laconicum. The tepidarium and caldarium sat on top of a hypocaust system.
One of the side-rooms contains a set of stairs and a small hallway behind the caldarium contains a colourful mosaic depicting a vase. Remains of
-
Frigidarium, seen from the south
-
Caldarium and tepidarium, seen from the west
-
Mosaic depicting a vase
Agora
The agora is a rectangular plaza, which was the central place for festivals, gatherings, and markets in the city. There appears to have been a doorway or gate at the southern entrance, since remains of a stone threshold and a large six-pointed star made of plaster were found there.[40] The west side was bordered by a stoa of the type with projecting wings. It is 68.7 metres long and 20.3 metres wide. There are two side wings. The whole front of the stoa is lined with columns. Behind this are nine exedrae.[34] The Doric columns of the portico are mostly lost, but much of the structure remains, including parts of the tufa sima, which are decorated with lion's head waterspouts, and can be dated stylistically to the second century BC. The second story of the stoa was made up of half-columns, with decorative blocks bearing a diamond pattern in between them. These blocks were also used for the second floor of the stage building in the theatre and in the second floor of the peristyles of several of the private houses. It is a decorative element that was particularly popular in the western Mediterranean.[41] In the northernmost exedra there are two spaces for statues with Greek inscriptions identifying them as statues of Apollonius and Ariston (a father-son pair).[24]
Left side: |
Left side: |
—ISic001413[42] |
The original stoa on the site was probably built in the fourth or third century BC at the same time as the city was refounded, but the surviving remains derive from the second century BC.[43]
Behind the stoa was the
To the north of the agora is a gymnasium. The structure is not well preserved, but it had a large courtyard, which was flanked on the west side by columns. Under the floor were two large cisterns.[46] Another large cistern is located next to the agora.[47] It measures 25 x 10 metres, with nine rows of pillars which supported a roof. This roof was probably part of the plaza of the agora.[48] In the northeast of the agora there are very poorly preserved remains of another bathhouse from the Imperial period. It is only recognisable from the foundations, since nothing of the superstructure survives.[49]
Theater
A theatre abutted the Agora, which was excavated in 1953 and 1958.[50] It was probably built in the second century BC, during the period of Sicilian prosperity under the Roman Republic. The northern parts were built over the top of an older house. It appears that there was no theatre on the site before this date. The seating was built into the slope of Monte Catalfano, but little of it now survives. Some stones from the mid-section have been placed back together in a modern reconstruction. In total, there were twenty rows of seating.[51]
From the
Temples
There are remains of several temples in the city. None of them follow Classical Greek or Roman models. They seem to belong to the Punic tradition, although it is often difficult to find parallels for specific details.
Behind the bouleuterion and the theatre was a temple complex containing five shrines, arranged into a northern and southern pair, with the fifth shrine located in between them. Some shrines have niches at the western end, where statues would have stood. Three of these statues have been recovered.
The southernmost shrine contained an over life-sized statue, which depicted Zeus or Baal.[52] It was discovered by Domenico Lo Faso Pietrasanta in 1826 and is now in the Archaeological Museum in Palermo. It is 1.65 metres high and made from local tufa. Most scholars date it to the second half of the second century BC. It shows that the city still contained wealthy citizens able to finance such works at that date.[53]
The northern pair of shrines may be the source of a statue of Hermes (now lost) and an archaic-looking seated statue which might depict Astarte, Tanit, or Artemis. These shrines, now very poorly preserved, were also discovered by Domenico Lo Faso Pietrasanta in 1826 and have a ground area of 10.4 x 8.6 metres.[54] The structure consisted of two cellae with benches on three sides and a courtyard in front.
The statue of the goddess is also now kept in the Archaeological Museum in Palermo. The figure is mode of local limestone and is heavily damaged. It depicts a goddess, sitting on a throne, flanked by two sphinxes. Originally, it was thought that the statue had belonged to a temple in the archaic city and was brought to Monte Catalfano after the destruction of the original city. Newer research has shown that the statue dates to ca. 350-250 BC and is based on Punic models.[55]
At the entrance to the agora, on the western side of the Via dell'Agora, is another sanctuary (Insula VIII). It consists of a large house with an inner courtyard and three rooms on the street front. the southernmost of these rooms contains three high, pillar-shaped altars. The central room has a large entrance from the street and stone benches on all sides. It has been interpreted as a waiting room. The function of the third, northern room is unclear.[56]
Houses
Two house types are identifiable. Large houses, mostly in the city centre, had two-story peristyles. At the edges of the city, there are smaller houses that had no peristyle, but a least a small courtyard. Due to the steep gradient of the cityscape, many houses had two or three stories.
The peristyle-type is typical of the houses of Soluntum, and similar houses are also known from other parts of northern Sicily. They developed in the years shortly after 300 BC. In other parts of the Greek world they first appeared at later dates, so it appears that northern Sicily played a special role in the development of the type.[57] The different levels of the houses were often used for different purposes. The shops on the lower floor of the houses in the centre of the city are usually not linked to the rest of the house, but were used to support the floor above. On the first floor there is often a peristyle and further living rooms. On the second floor, there are practical rooms like stables and kitchens. The facades of the wealthier houses were decorated with pilasters and half-columns. Nearly all houses had a cistern, which collected rainwater for the water supply.[58]
The houses - like most buildings of the city - were built from two kinds of stone: hard grey dolomite from Monte Catalfano itself and a chalky sandstone from nearby quarries. The binding material was lime mortar. Several masonry techniques were used for the walls. The most common is "ladder masonry" in which small regular sandstone blocks and laid alongside large dolomite blocks and the space in petween in filled with small rocks. The walls always had a double-shell design. "Block masonry" was often used, especially for the lower parts. In this technique, large dolomite blocks were laid one on top of the other. Regular sandstone blocks were mainly used in facades. Older structures used the opus africanum technique, in which the stones were placed between individual pillars. The roofs of the houses were terracotta tiles.[59]
The "Gymnasium"
The so-called "Gymnasium" (Italian: Ginnasio) in Insula V on the Via dell'Agora (the main street) was a private house, which was probably built in the third century BC and was inhabited until the third century AD. Several phases of construction and renovation are detectable. On the side of the house facing the street, there are four stores, each with two rooms, which were probably rented out.
The house stands on a steep slope, so the main floor, with the peristyle and various small rooms is actually the first floor. The entrance was on a side street. Parts of the second story are also preserved. It is located on the upper part of the slope and was accessed from the peristyle using a set of stairs.
The name is modern and inaccurate, since the structure was never used as a gymnasium. It was given to the house because a Greek inscription was found there during excavations in 1865, with a dedication for a gymnasiarch, but this inscription did not originally stand in the house.[60] The structure is a large house with a two-story peristyle. In the 19th century, six columns of this peristyle were re-erected and various parts of the building were reconstructed. The house is the main focus of Markus Wolf's 2003 monograph on the houses of Soluntum.[61]
House of Leda
The House of Leda (Italian: Casa di Leda) in Insula VII, is derived from its wall paintings, which included a depiction of Leda. The house is located on the Via dell'Agora and was excavated in 1963 by Vincenzo Tusa. It measures 26.7 x 19.5 metres, giving a floorspace of about 520 m2. There are four shops on the streetfront, but their facade is completely lost. The central two shops were narrower than the outer two. All of them probably also had an upper floor, since remains of staircases are preserved, as are benches and various other furnishings.[62]
The main house was entered from a side street to the south, now known as Via Ippodamo da Mileto. The centre of the house was originally a two-story peristyle with four Ionic columns on each side; this is only partially preserved. The floor of the peristyle is 5.65 metres above the floor level of the shops. On the east side of the peristyle is a cistern that stretches the entire length of the courtyard. In the middle is a pool decorated with a geometric mosaic, which collected rainwater and fed into the cistern. The whole peristyle is decorated with a simple mosaic.[62]
In the centre of the west side of the courtyard was the
-
Wall paintings in the House of Leda
-
Statue of aMusefrom the House of Leda
-
Mosaic of an armillary sphere from the House of Leda
-
Mosaic and basin for collecting rainwater in the peristyle
-
Foot of a basin
House of the Masks
The House of the Masks (Italian: Casa delle Maschere) in Insula XI was partially excavated in 1868–1869. It is located at the high point of the whole city. A atrium stood at the centre, with a peristyle to the east. On the east side of the house was a kind of veranda with a view over the city to the sea.[65] In one room of the house there are well-preserved wall paintings in the second style, dating to the first century BC. These paintings mimic the appearance of blocks of coloured marble, with garlands above and theatre masks hanging off them. These paintings are now kept in the Antonino Salinas Archaeological Museum in Palermo.[66]
House of Harpocrates
The House of Harpocrates (
House of the Garlands
The House of the Garlands (Italian: Casa delle Ghirlande) in Insula X is right at the northern end of the city, north of the Agora and most of the other excavated buildings. It has a peristyle court which leads to other rooms. Part of the structure has been lost to erosion. At the time of its discovery, the house had well-preserved wall paintings in one room, in the late Augustan second style, depicting a series of candelabra with garlands on a late background (whence the house's name). Traces of more second-style paintings are found in another room, in this case, imitating marble cladding. All of these paintings are now heavily weathered.[67] Some floors with simple black-and-white mosaics are preserved.[68] A small decorated altar with the Punic Tanit symbol was found inside the house, which testifies to the mixture of Punic and Roman culture in the community.[69]
-
House of the Garlands, mosaic
-
House of the Garlands, mosaic
-
House of the Garlands, mosaic and remnants of wall paintings
-
Altar with Tanit symbol
Courtyard House
The Courtyard House (Italian: Casa a Cortile) in Insula VII is a comparatively small house with a rather different plan from the large peristyle houses. This structure measures 12-14 x 19.5 metres and covers around 250 m2. The entrance is at the south side, on the side street known as the Via Ippodamo da Mileto. From there one enters a large entrance room. To the left of this is a stable, with stone feeding troughs still in situ. To the north of the entrance room a small courtyard with a single Doric column in the centre. Off this courtyard are further rooms. This house was certainly two-stories high, as shown above all by the surviving column remains which would have supported the upper floor.[70]
Others
A few buildings appear to have been purely commercial. People surely lived and worked throughout the city and in designated quarters. In the northwest in particular, there are many smaller houses, which were probably the residences of craftsmen. The excavator Vincenzo Tusa referred to this sector as the "craftsmen's quarter." Millstones have been found in many houses.[71] Insula 13, at the highest part of the city, contained the remains of building with an open courtyard with four rooms to the west, one of which contained an oven.[72] Near the top of the town are some cisterns cut in the rock.
Necropoleis
Necropoleis were found during the excavations at the foot of Monte Catalfani, very near the modern train station of
Present state
Until 2009, visitors were only allowed to visit the Antiquarium, which had an exhibition of various finds from the site, with a description of the architecture and information on the lives of the city's inhabitants. Since 2009, the excavated area has been open to visitors as the Archaeological Park of Soluntum (Italian: Parco Archeologico di Solunto). In 2014, it had around 10,000 visitors. [74] The closest train station, Santa Flavia-Solunto-Porticello, on the Palermo-Agrigento-Porto Empedocle railway line , is about 2 km from the park. The preservation of the ruins is a serious conservation challenge. Many of the wall paintings which were uncovered in the mid-20th century have now been totally destroyed by the elements. The second style paintings, which were discovered in the 19th century, are better preserved, since they were removed from the walls and placed in to the excavation storerooms immediately after discovery. They are now on display in the museum. Even the preservation of the masonry is a challenge, since the local building stone is very crumbly.[75]
References
- ^ Head & al. (1911), p. 877.
- ^ Thuc.
- Diod., Eth.
- ^ Diod.
- ISBN 0-691-03169-X), Map 47, notes.
- ^ a b c Ashby 1911, p. 368.
- ^ Bunbury 1857, p. 1021
- ^ Thuc. 6.2.6
- ^ Wolf, 2003 & 1.
- ^ Blasetti Fantauzzi, Chiara; De Vincenzo, Salvatore (2012). "Die phönizische Kolonisation auf Sizilien und Sardinien und die Problematik der Machtentstehung Karthagos". Kölner und Bonner Archaeologica: 18.
- ^ Bunbury 1857, p. 1021
- ^ Diod. 14.48.4-5
- ^ Bunbury 1857, p. 1021
- ^ Diod. 14.78.7
- ^ a b Amadasi Guzzo 2012, p. 124.
- ^ Bunbury 1857, p. 1021
- ^ Diod. 20.69.
- ^ Bunbury 1857, p. 1021 cites: Diod. 23. p. 505.
- ^ Lang 2022.
- ^ Cicero In Verrem 2.42, 3.43.9
- ^ Wilson 2000, p. 137.
- ^ Bunbury 1857, p. 1021 cites: Pliny Natural History 3.8. 14; Ptol. 3.4.3 (where the name is corruptly written Ὀλουλίς)
- ^ Bunbury 1857, p. 1021 cites: Antonine Itinerary p. 91; Tabula Peutingeriana.
- ^ a b Wolf, 2013 & 45.
- ^ Prag, Jonathan. "ISic003067". I Sicily. Retrieved 12 August 2023.
- ^ Calascibetta & Di Leonardo 2012.
- ^ Prag, Jonathan. "ISic003419". I Sicily. Retrieved 12 August 2023.
- ^ Bunbury 1857, p. 1021 cites: Tommaso Fazello de Reb. Sic. viii. p. 352; Amico, Lex. Top. vol. ii. pp. 192-95; Hoare's Class. Tour, vol. ii. p. 234; Serra di Falco, Ant. della Sicilia, vol. v. pp. 60-67.
- ^ Prag, Jonathan. "ISic000047". I Sicily. Retrieved 12 August 2023.
- ^ Gandolfo 2003.
- ^ Wolf 2003, p. 2.
- ^ Wiegand 1997.
- ^ Wolf 2003.
- ^ a b Wolf 2013.
- ^ Sposito 2014.
- ^ a b Wiegand 1997, p. 29.
- ^ Wilson 2013, pp. 114–116.
- ^ A. Italia, in: A. Cutroni Tisa, A. Italia, D. Lima, V. Tusa: Solunto, pp. 36–39
- ^ Sposito 2014, p. 101-110.
- ^ Italia 1994, p. 70.
- ^ Wiegand 1997, p. 53.
- ^ Prag, Jonathan. "I Sicily 1413". sicily.classics.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 11 August 2023.
- ^ Wolf 2013, p. 41.
- ^ Wolf 2013, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Wolf 2013, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Sposito 2014, pp. 211–219.
- ^ Sposito 2014, pp. 320–322.
- ^ Wolf 2013, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Wolf 2013, p. 26.
- ^ Wiegand 1997, p. 5.
- ^ Wiegand 1997, p. 20.
- ^ Wilson 2013, p. 115.
- ^ Wilson 2000, p. fig 11. 15.
- ^ Domenico Lo Faso Pietrasanta: Le antichità della Sicilia. Band 5: Antichità di Catana — Palermo. 1842, tables 38–41.
- ^ Chiarenza 2013, pp. 945–954.
- ^ Sposito 2014, pp. 197–200.
- ^ Wolf 2003, p. 101.
- ^ Wolf 2003, p. 111.
- ^ Wolf 2003, pp. 6–8.
- ^ "The three units of infantry who served at the time of Apollonios son of Apollonios, and the ephebes of his year (honour) Antallos Ornichas, son of Antallos, grandson of Antallos who held the office of gymnasiarch, for the sake of good will." (Πεζῶν τάξιες τρεῖς αἱ | στρατευσάμεναι ἐπὶ Ἀ|πολλωνίου Ἀπολλωνίου καὶ | οἱ αὐτοῦ ἔφηβοι Ἄνταλλον Ἀν|τάλλου τοῦ Ἀντάλλου Ὀρνι|χᾶν γυμνασιαρχήσαντα | εὐνοίας ἕνεκα): Prag, Jonathan. "ISic001130". I Sicily. Retrieved 12 August 2023.
- ^ a b Wolf 2003, pp. 53–61.
- ^ a b c Wolf 2003, pp. 64–69.
- ^
Berlin, Nicole (June 2019). "Mixed-Media Domestic Ensembles in Roman Sicily: The House of Leda at Soluntum". Arts. 8 (2): 62. ISSN 2076-0752.
- S2CID 194101486.
- ^ Sposito 2014, p. 235.
- ^ Hendrik Gerard Beyen: Die Pompejanische Wanddekoration vom Zweiten bis zum Vierten Stil. Band 1. Haag 1938, pp. 44–46; for modern restorations and reconstructions, see: Il reauro dei dipinti di Solunto.
- ^ De Vos 1975, pp. 195–224.
- ^ Sposito 2014, pp. 220–227.
- ^ Italia, in: A. Cutroni Tisa, A. Italia, D. Lima, V. Tusa: Solunto, p. 81
- ^ Wolf 2013, p. 68-71.
- ^ Sposito 2014, pp. 191, 196, figs. 34, 16.
- ^ Sposito 2014, pp. 236–250.
- ^ V. Tusa, in A. Cutroni Tusa, A. Italia, D. Lima, V. Tusa: Solunto, p. 162–163.
- ^ "Aumentati i visitatori nel parco archeologico di Solunto anche grazie al Jazz". La Voce di Bagheria. Retrieved 11 August 2023.
- ^ Sposito 2001.
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- Wiegand, Armin (1997). Das Theater von Solunt: ein besonderer Skenentyp des Späthellenismus auf Sizilien. Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern. ISBN 9783805320351.
- Wilson, Roger J. A. (2000). "Ciceronian Sicily: an archaeological perspective". In Smith, Christopher John; Serrati, John (eds.). Sicily from Aeneas to Augustus. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 134–160. ISBN 0-7486-1367-6.
- Wilson, Roger J. A. (2013). "Hellenistic Sicily, 270–100 BC". In Prag, Jonathan R. W.; Quinn, Josephine Crawley (eds.). The Hellenistic West: Rethinking the Ancient Mediterranean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 79–119. ISBN 978-1-107-03242-2.
- Wolf, Markus (2003). Die Häuser von Solunt und die hellenistische Wohnarchitektur. Mainz: P. von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-3267-5.
- Wolf, Markus (2013). Die Agora von Solunt: Öffentliche Gebäude und öffentliche Räume des Hellenismus im griechischen Westen. Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag. ISBN 978-3-89500-726-2.
External links
- Official website (in Italian)
- Lang, J. "Online Katalog: Hellenistisch-römische Wohnkultur in der ersten römischen Provinz". Arachne. Retrieved 16 December 2022.