Solvent effects
In
A
Effects on stability
Different solvents can affect the equilibrium constant of a reaction by differential stabilization of the reactant or product. The equilibrium is shifted in the direction of the substance that is preferentially stabilized. Stabilization of the reactant or product can occur through any of the different non-covalent interactions with the solvent such as H-bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, van der Waals interactions etc.
Acid-base equilibria
The ionization equilibrium of an acid or a base is affected by a solvent change. The effect of the solvent is not only because of its acidity or basicity but also because of its
Solvent | Dielectric constant[1] |
---|---|
Acetonitrile | 37 |
Dimethylsulfoxide | 47 |
Water | 78 |
In the table above, it can be seen that water is the most polar-solvent, followed by DMSO, and then acetonitrile. Consider the following acid dissociation equilibrium:
- HA ⇌ A− + H+
Water, being the most polar-solvent listed above, stabilizes the ionized species to a greater extent than does DMSO or Acetonitrile. Ionization - and, thus, acidity - would be greatest in water and lesser in DMSO and Acetonitrile, as seen in the table below, which shows pKa values at 25 °C for acetonitrile (ACN)[2][3][4] and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)[5] and water.
HA ⇌ A− + H+ | ACN | DMSO | water |
---|---|---|---|
p-Toluenesulfonic acid | 8.5 | 0.9 | strong |
2,4-Dinitrophenol | 16.66 | 5.1 | 3.9 |
Benzoic acid | 21.51 | 11.1 | 4.2 |
Acetic acid | 23.51 | 12.6 | 4.756 |
Phenol | 29.14 | 18.0 | 9.99 |
Keto–enol equilibria
Many
Solvent | |
---|---|
Gas phase | 11.7 |
Cyclohexane | 42 |
Tetrahydrofuran | 7.2 |
Benzene | 14.7 |
Ethanol | 5.8 |
Dichloromethane | 4.2 |
Water | 0.23 |
Effects on reaction rates
Often, reactivity and reaction mechanisms are pictured as the behavior of isolated molecules in which the solvent is treated as a passive support. However, the nature of the solvent can actually influence reaction rates and order of a chemical reaction.[6][7][8][9]
Performing a reaction without solvent can affect reaction-rate for reactions with
Equilibrium-solvent effects
Solvents can affect rates through equilibrium-solvent effects that can be explained on the basis of the transition state theory. In essence, the reaction rates are influenced by differential solvation of the starting material and transition state by the solvent. When the reactant molecules proceed to the transition state, the solvent molecules orient themselves to stabilize the transition state. If the transition state is stabilized to a greater extent than the starting material then the reaction proceeds faster. If the starting material is stabilized to a greater extent than the transition state then the reaction proceeds slower. However, such differential solvation requires rapid reorientational relaxation of the solvent (from the transition state orientation back to the ground-state orientation). Thus, equilibrium-solvent effects are observed in reactions that tend to have sharp barriers and weakly dipolar, rapidly relaxing solvents.[6]
Frictional solvent effects
The equilibrium hypothesis does not stand for very rapid chemical reactions in which the transition state theory breaks down. In such cases involving strongly dipolar, slowly relaxing solvents, solvation of the transition state does not play a very large role in affecting the reaction rate. Instead, dynamic contributions of the solvent (such as friction, density, internal pressure, or viscosity) play a large role in affecting the reaction rate.[6][9]
Hughes–Ingold rules
The effect of solvent on elimination and nucleophillic substitution reactions was originally studied by British chemists
- increasing magnitude of charge will increase solvation
- increasing delocalization will decrease solvation
- loss of charge will decrease solvation more than the dispersal of charge [6]
The applicable effect of these general assumptions are shown in the following examples:
- An increase in solvent polarity accelerates the rates of reactions where a charge is developed in the activated complex from neutral or slightly charged reactant
- An increase in solvent polarity decreases the rates of reactions where there is less charge in the activated complex in comparison to the starting materials
- A change in solvent polarity will have little or no effect on the rates of reaction when there is little or no difference in charge between the reactants and the activated complex.[6]
Reaction examples
Substitution reactions
The solvent used in
Solvent | Dielectric Constant, ε | Relative Rate |
---|---|---|
CH3CO2H | 6 | 1 |
CH3OH | 33 | 4 |
H2O | 78 | 150,000 |
The case for
Solvent | Dielectric Constant, ε | Relative Rate | Type |
---|---|---|---|
CH3OH | 33 | 1 | Protic |
H2O | 78 | 7 | Protic |
DMSO | 49 | 1,300 | Aprotic |
DMF | 37 | 2800 | Aprotic |
CH3CN | 38 | 5000 | Aprotic |
A comparison of SN1 to SN2 reactions is to the right. On the left is an SN1 reaction coordinate diagram. Note the decrease in ΔG‡activation for the polar-solvent reaction conditions. This arises from the fact that polar solvents stabilize the formation of the carbocation intermediate to a greater extent than the non-polar-solvent conditions. This is apparent in the ΔEa, ΔΔG‡activation. On the right is an SN2 reaction coordinate diagram. Note the decreased ΔG‡activation for the non-polar-solvent reaction conditions. Polar solvents stabilize the reactants to a greater extent than the non-polar-solvent conditions by solvating the negative charge on the nucleophile, making it less available to react with the electrophile.
Transition-metal-catalyzed reactions
The reactions involving charged transition metal complexes (cationic or anionic) are dramatically influenced by solvation, especially in the polar media. As high as 30-50 kcal/mol changes in the potential energy surface (activation energies and relative stability) were calculated if the charge of the metal species was changed during the chemical transformation.[13]
Free radical syntheses
Many free radical-based syntheses show large kinetic solvent effects that can reduce the rate of reaction and cause a planned reaction to follow an unwanted pathway.[14]
See also
References
- ISBN 0-19-511999-1
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Kütt A, Movchun V, Rodima T, Dansauer T, Rusanov EB, Leito I, Kaljurand I, Koppel J, Pihl V, Koppel I, Ovsjannikov G, Toom L, Mishima M, Medebielle M, Lork E, Röschenthaler GV, Koppel IA, Kolomeitsev AA (2008). "Pentakis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl, a Sterically Crowded and Electron-withdrawing Group: Synthesis and Acidity of Pentakis(trifluoromethyl)benzene, -toluene, -phenol, and -aniline". J. Org. Chem. 73 (7): 2607–2620. PMID 18324831.
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Kütt, A.; Leito, I.; Kaljurand, I.; Sooväli, L.; Vlasov, V.M.; Yagupolskii, L.M.; Koppel, I.A. (2006). "A Comprehensive Self-Consistent Spectrophotometric Acidity Scale of Neutral Brønsted Acids in Acetonitrile". J. Org. Chem. 71 (7): 2829–2838. PMID 16555839.
- ^
Kaljurand I, Kütt A, Sooväli L, Rodima T, Mäemets V, Leito I, Koppel IA (2005). "Extension of the Self-Consistent Spectrophotometric Basicity Scale in Acetonitrile to a Full Span of 28 pKa Units: Unification of Different Basicity Scales". J. Org. Chem. 70 (3): 1019–1028. PMID 15675863.
- ^ "Bordwell pKa Table (Acidity in DMSO)". Retrieved 2008-11-02.
- ^ ISBN 0-89573-684-5.
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- ^ ISBN 978-0-387-44897-8.
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