Sirius
Observation data ICRS
| ||
---|---|---|
Constellation | Canis Major | |
Pronunciation
|
/ˈsɪriəs/[1] | |
Sirius A | ||
Right ascension | 06h 45m 08.917s[2] | |
Declination | −16° 42′ 58.02″[2] | |
Apparent magnitude (V) | −1.46[3] | |
Sirius B | ||
Right ascension | 06h 45m 09.0s[4] | |
Declination | −16° 43′ 06″[4] | |
Apparent magnitude (V) | 8.44[5] | |
Characteristics | ||
Sirius A | ||
Evolutionary stage | Main sequence | |
Spectral type | A0mA1 Va[6] | |
U−B colour index
|
−0.05[3] | |
B−V colour index
|
+0.00[3] | |
Sirius B | ||
Evolutionary stage | White dwarf | |
Spectral type | DA2[5] | |
U−B colour index
|
−1.04[7] | |
B−V colour index
|
−0.03[7] | |
Astrometry | ||
Radial velocity (Rv) | −5.50[8] km/s | |
Sirius A | ||
Distance | 8.60 ± 0.04 ly (2.64 ± 0.01 pc) | |
Absolute magnitude (MV) | +1.43[10] | |
Sirius B | ||
Distance | 8.709 ± 0.005 ly (2.670 ± 0.002 pc) | |
Absolute magnitude (MV) | +11.18[7] | |
Argument of periastron (ω)(secondary) | 149.161 ± 0.075° | |
Details | ||
Sirius A | ||
Myr | ||
Other designations | ||
Database references | ||
A | ||
B |
Sirius is the
Sirius appears bright because of its intrinsic
Sirius A is about twice as massive as the
Sirius is colloquially known as the "Dog Star", reflecting its prominence in its
Observational history
| |||
Sirius Spdt in hieroglyphs | |||
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As the brightest star in the night sky, Sirius appears in some of the earliest astronomical records. Its displacement from the
The
The Romans celebrated the heliacal setting of Sirius around 25 April,
Bright stars were important to the ancient
Kinematics
In 1717,
In 1868, Sirius became the first star to have its velocity measured, the beginning of the study of celestial
Distance
In his 1698 book, Cosmotheoros,
Scottish astronomer
The Hipparcos parallax for Sirius is only accurate to about ±0.04
Discovery of Sirius B
In a letter dated 10 August 1844, the German astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel deduced from changes in the proper motion of Sirius that it had an unseen companion.[47] On 31 January 1862, American telescope-maker and astronomer Alvan Graham Clark first observed the faint companion, which is now called Sirius B, or affectionately "the Pup".[48] This happened during testing of an 18.5-inch (470 mm) aperture great refractor telescope for Dearborn Observatory, which was one of the largest refracting telescope lenses in existence at the time, and the largest telescope in the United States.[49] Sirius B's sighting was confirmed on 8 March with smaller telescopes.[50]
The visible star is now sometimes known as Sirius A. Since 1894, some apparent orbital irregularities in the Sirius system have been observed, suggesting a third very small companion star, but this has never been confirmed. The best fit to the data indicates a six-year orbit around Sirius A and a mass of 0.06 M☉. This star would be five to ten magnitudes fainter than the white dwarf Sirius B, which would make it difficult to observe.[51] Observations published in 2008 were unable to detect either a third star or a planet. An apparent "third star" observed in the 1920s is now believed to be a background object.[52]
In 1915,
Colour controversy
Around the year 150 AD,[57] Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria, an ethnic Greek Egyptian astronomer of the Roman period, mapped the stars in Books VII and VIII of his Almagest, in which he used Sirius as the location for the globe's central meridian.[58] He described Sirius as reddish, along with five other stars, Betelgeuse, Antares, Aldebaran, Arcturus, and Pollux, all of which are at present observed to be of orange or red hue.[57] The discrepancy was first noted by amateur astronomer Thomas Barker, squire of Lyndon Hall in Rutland, who prepared a paper and spoke at a meeting of the Royal Society in London in 1760.[59] The existence of other stars changing in brightness gave credibility to the idea that some may change in colour too; Sir John Herschel noted this in 1839, possibly influenced by witnessing Eta Carinae two years earlier.[60] Thomas J.J. See resurrected discussion on red Sirius with the publication of several papers in 1892, and a final summary in 1926.[61] He cited not only Ptolemy but also the poet Aratus, the orator Cicero, and general Germanicus all calling the star red, though acknowledging that none of the latter three authors were astronomers, the last two merely translating Aratus's poem Phaenomena.[62] Seneca had described Sirius as being of a deeper red than Mars.[63] It is therefore possible that the description as red is a poetic metaphor for ill fortune. In 1985, German astronomers Wolfhard Schlosser and Werner Bergmann published an account of an 8th-century Lombardic manuscript, which contains De cursu stellarum ratio by St. Gregory of Tours. The Latin text taught readers how to determine the times of nighttime prayers from positions of the stars, and a bright star described as rubeola ("reddish") was claimed to be Sirius. The authors proposed this as evidence that Sirius B had been a red giant at the time of observation.[64] Other scholars replied that it was likely St. Gregory had been referring to Arcturus.[65][66]
It is notable that not all ancient observers saw Sirius as red. The 1st-century poet Marcus Manilius described it as "sea-blue", as did the 4th-century Avienius.[67] Furthermore, Sirius was consistently reported as a white star in ancient China: a detailed re-evaluation of Chinese texts from the 2nd century BC up to the 7th century AD concluded that all such reliable sources are consistent with Sirius being white.[68][69]
Nevertheless, historical accounts referring to Sirius as red are sufficiently extensive to lead researchers to seek possible physical explanations. Proposed theories fall into two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic theories postulate a real change in the Sirius system over the past two millennia, of which the most widely discussed is the proposal that the white dwarf Sirius B was a red giant as recently as 2000 years ago. Extrinsic theories are concerned with the possibility of transient reddening in an intervening medium through which the star is observed, such as might be caused by dust in the interstellar medium, or by particles in the terrestrial atmosphere.
The possibility that
Extrinsic theories based on optical effects in the Earth's atmosphere are better supported by available evidence.
Observation
With an apparent magnitude of −1.46, Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky, almost twice as bright as the second-brightest star, Canopus.[72] From Earth, Sirius always appears dimmer than Jupiter and Venus, and at certain times also dimmer than Mercury and Mars.[73] Sirius is visible from almost everywhere on Earth, except latitudes north of 73° N, and it does not rise very high when viewed from some northern cities (reaching only 13° above the horizon from Saint Petersburg).[74] Because of its declination of roughly −17°, Sirius is a circumpolar star from latitudes south of 73° S. From the Southern Hemisphere in early July, Sirius can be seen in both the evening where it sets after the Sun and in the morning where it rises before the Sun.[75] Along with Procyon and Betelgeuse, Sirius forms one of the three vertices of the Winter Triangle to observers in the Northern Hemisphere.[76]
Sirius can be observed in daylight with the naked eye under the right conditions. Ideally, the sky should be very clear, with the observer at a high altitude, the star passing overhead, and the Sun low on the horizon. These observing conditions are more easily met in the Southern Hemisphere, owing to the southerly declination of Sirius.[77]
The orbital motion of the Sirius binary system brings the two stars to a minimum angular separation of 3
At a distance of 2.6 parsecs (8.6 ly), the Sirius system contains two of the eight
Stellar system
Sirius is a binary star system consisting of two white stars orbiting each other with a separation of about 20 AU[e] (roughly the distance between the Sun and Uranus) and a period of 50.1 years. The brighter component, termed Sirius A, is a main-sequence star of spectral type early A, with an estimated surface temperature of 9,940 K.[14] Its companion, Sirius B, is a star that has already evolved off the main sequence and become a white dwarf. Currently 10,000 times less luminous in the visual spectrum, Sirius B was once the more massive of the two.[84] The age of the system has been estimated at 230 million years. Early in its life, it is thought to have been two bluish-white stars orbiting each other in an elliptical orbit every 9.1 years.[84] The system emits a higher than expected level of infrared radiation, as measured by IRAS space-based observatory. This might be an indication of dust in the system, which is considered somewhat unusual for a binary star.[82][85] The Chandra X-ray Observatory image shows Sirius B outshining its partner as an X-ray source.[86]
In 2015, Vigan and colleagues used the VLT Survey Telescope to search for evidence of substellar companions, and were able to rule out the presence of giant planets 11 times more massive than Jupiter at 0.5 AU distance from Sirius A, 6–7 times the mass of Jupiter at 1–2 AU distance, and down to around 4 times the mass of Jupiter at 10 AU distance.[87] Similarly, Lucas and colleagues did not detect any companions around Sirius B.[88]
Sirius A
Sirius A, also known as the Dog Star, has a mass of 2.063 M☉.
Stellar models suggest that the star formed during the collapsing of a molecular cloud and that, after 10 million years, its internal energy generation was derived entirely from nuclear reactions. The core became convective and used the CNO cycle for energy generation.[90] It is calculated that Sirius A will have completely exhausted the store of hydrogen at its core within a billion (109) years of its formation, and will then evolve away from the main sequence.[93] It will pass through a red giant stage and eventually become a white dwarf.[94]
Sirius A is classed as a type
Sirius B
Sirius B, also known as the Pup Star, is one of the most massive white dwarfs known. With a mass of 1.02 M☉, it is almost double the 0.5–0.6 M☉ average. This mass is packed into a volume roughly equal to the Earth's.[56] The current surface temperature is 25,200 K.[13] Because there is no internal heat source, Sirius B will steadily cool as the remaining heat is radiated into space over the next two billion years or so.[96]
A white dwarf forms after a star has evolved from the main sequence and then passed through a
This star is primarily composed of a carbon–oxygen mixture that was generated by helium fusion in the progenitor star.[13] This is overlaid by an envelope of lighter elements, with the materials segregated by mass because of the high surface gravity.[99] The outer atmosphere of Sirius B is now almost pure hydrogen—the element with the lowest mass—and no other elements are seen in its spectrum.[100]
Apparent third star
Since 1894, irregularities have been tentatively observed in the orbits of Sirius A and B with an apparent periodicity of 6–6.4 years. A 1995 study concluded that such a companion likely exists, with a mass of roughly 0.05 solar mass—a small red dwarf or large brown dwarf, with an apparent magnitude of more than 15, and less than 3 arcseconds from Sirius A.[51]
More recent (and accurate) astrometric observations by the Hubble Space Telescope ruled out the existence of a stellar mass sized Sirius C (while still allowing a substellar mass candidate such as a lower mass
Star cluster membership
In 1909,
Distant star cluster
In 2017, a massive star cluster was discovered only 10 arcminutes from Sirius, making the two appear to be visually close to one other when viewed from the point of view of the Earth. It was discovered during a statistical analysis of Gaia data. The cluster is over a thousand times further away from us than the star system, but given its size it still appears at magnitude 8.3.[107]
Etymology
The proper name "Sirius" comes from the Latin Sīrius, from the
Sirius has over 50 other designations and names attached to it.
Cultural significance
Many cultures have historically attached special significance to Sirius, particularly in relation to dogs. It is often colloquially called the "Dog Star" as the brightest star of Canis Major, the "Great Dog" constellation. Canis Major was classically depicted as Orion's dog. The Ancient Greeks thought that Sirius's emanations could affect dogs adversely, making them behave abnormally during the "dog days", the hottest days of the summer. The Romans knew these days as dies caniculares, and the star Sirius was called Canicula, "little dog". The excessive panting of dogs in hot weather was thought to place them at risk of desiccation and disease. In extreme cases, a foaming dog might have rabies, which could infect and kill humans they had bitten.[31] Homer, in the Iliad, describes the approach of Achilles toward Troy in these words:[120]
Sirius rises late in the dark, liquid sky
On summer nights, star of stars,
Orion's Dog they call it, brightest
Of all, but an evil portent, bringing heat
And fevers to suffering humanity.
In a little-attested Greek myth, the star-god that personified Sirius fell in love with a fertility goddess named Opora, but he was unable to have her. Thus he began to burn hot, making humans suffer, who prayed to the gods. The god of the north wind, Boreas, solved the problem by ordering his sons to deliver Opora to Sirius, while he cooled down the earth with blasts of his own cold wind.[121][122]
In Iranian mythology, especially in
In
Several cultures also associated the star with a bow and arrows. The ancient Chinese visualized a large bow and arrow across the southern sky, formed by the constellations of
Sirius is mentioned in
In
The midnight
Dogon
The
Doubts have been raised about the validity of Griaule and Dieterlein's work.[138][139] In 1991, anthropologist Walter van Beek concluded about the Dogon, "Though they do speak about sigu tolo [which is what Griaule claimed the Dogon called Sirius] they disagree completely with each other as to which star is meant; for some it is an invisible star that should rise to announce the sigu [festival], for another it is Venus that, through a different position, appears as sigu tolo. All agree, however, that they learned about the star from Griaule."[140] According to Noah Brosch cultural transfer of relatively modern astronomical information could have taken place in 1893, when a French expedition arrived in Central West Africa to observe the total eclipse on 16 April.[141]
Serer religion
In the religion of the Serer people of Senegal, the Gambia and Mauritania, Sirius is called Yoonir from the Serer language (and some of the Cangin language speakers, who are all ethnically Serers). The star Sirius is one of the most important and sacred stars in Serer religious cosmology and symbolism. The Serer high priests and priestesses (Saltigues, the hereditary "rain priests"[144]) chart Yoonir in order to forecast rainfall and enable Serer farmers to start planting seeds. In Serer religious cosmology, it is the symbol of the universe.[142][143]
Modern significance
Sirius features on the coat of arms of
Composer Karlheinz Stockhausen, who wrote a piece called Sirius, is claimed to have said on several occasions that he came from a planet in the Sirius system.[152][153] To Stockhausen, Sirius stood for "the place where music is the highest of vibrations" and where music had been developed in the most perfect way.[154]
Sirius has been the subject of poetry.
...the fiery Sirius alters hue
And bickers into red and emerald.[156]
See also
Notes
- ^ Compare the meaning of the Egyptian name with Sirius's completion of the Winter Triangle asterism, joining the other two brightest stars of the northern winter sky, Betelgeuse and Procyon.
- ^
As Sirius is visible together with the constellation of syncretized with the goddess Isis, Sah was linked with Osiris, and Sopdu was linked with Horus. The joining of Sopdet with Isis would allow Plutarch to state that "The soul of Isis is called Dog by the Greeks", meaning Sirius worshiped as Isis-Sopdet by Egyptians was named the Dog by the Greeks and Romans. The 70 day period of the absence of Sirius from the sky was understood as the passing of Sopdet-Isis and Sah-Osiris through the Egyptian underworld.[29]
- ^ Two full 50.09 year orbits following the periastron epoch of 1894.13 gives a date of 1994.31.
- ^ Two and one-half 50.09 year orbits following the periastron epoch of 1894.13 gives a date of 2019.34 .
- ^ Semi-major axis in AU = semimajor axis in seconds/ parallax = 7.56″/0.37921 = 19.8 AU; as the eccentricity is 0.6, the distance fluctuates between 40% and 160% of that, roughly from 8 AU to 32 AU.
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Bibliography
- Brosch, Noah (2008). "Sirius revealed – a synthesis of the information". Sirius Matters. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 354. pp. 185–202. ISBN 978-1-4020-8318-1.
- Holberg, J.B. (2007). Sirius: Brightest Diamond in the Night Sky. Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing. ISBN 978-0-387-48941-4.
- Makemson, Maud Worcester (1941). The Morning Star Rises: An Account of Polynesian Astronomy. Yale University Press. Bibcode:1941msra.book.....M.
External links
- NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: Sirius B in x-ray (6 October 2000)
- "Sirius Matters: Alien Contact". Chandra X-ray Center. 28 November 2000. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
- Sankey, John. "Getting Sirius About Time". www.johnsankey.ca. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
- Barker, Tho.; Stukeley, W. (1760). "Remarks on the Mutations of the Stars". Philosophical Transactions. 51: 498–504. JSTOR 105393.