Soul
In many
Etymology
The Modern English noun
The Old English word is cognate with other historical Germanic terms for the same idea, including Old Frisian sēle, sēl (which could also mean "salvation", or "solemn oath"), Gothic saiwala, Old High German sēula, sēla, Old Saxon sēola, and Old Norse sāla. Present-day cognates include Dutch ziel and German Seele.[2]
Religious views
In Judaism and in some Christian denominations, only human beings have immortal souls (although immortality is disputed within Judaism and the concept of immortality was most likely influenced by Plato).[3] For example, Thomas Aquinas, borrowing directly from Aristotle's On the Soul, attributed "soul" (anima) to all organisms but argued that only human souls are immortal.[4] Other religions (most notably Hinduism and Jainism) believe that all living things from the smallest bacterium to the largest of mammals are the souls themselves (Atman, jiva) and have their physical representative (the body) in the world. The actual self is the soul, while the body is only a mechanism to experience the karma of that life. Thus if one sees a tiger then there is a self-conscious identity residing in it (the soul), and a physical representative (the whole body of the tiger, which is observable) in the world. Some teach that even non-biological entities (such as rivers and mountains) possess souls. This belief is called animism.[5]
Ancient Near East
In the
Baháʼí Faith
The
Buddhism
The traditional doctrine in
Christianity
According to some
Paul the Apostle used ψυχή (psychē) and πνεῦμα (pneuma) specifically to distinguish between the Jewish notions of נפש (nephesh) and רוח ruah (spirit)[11] (also in the Septuagint, e.g. Genesis 1:2 רוּחַ אֱלֹהִים = πνεῦμα θεοῦ = spiritus Dei = "the Spirit of God").
Christians generally believe in the existence and eternal, infinite nature of the soul.[12]
Origin of the soul
The "origin of the soul" has provided a vexing question in Christianity. The major theories put forward include soul creationism, traducianism, and pre-existence. According to soul creationism, God creates each individual soul directly, either at the moment of conception or at some later time. According to traducianism, the soul comes from the parents by natural generation. According to the preexistence theory, the soul exists before the moment of conception. There have been differing thoughts regarding whether human embryos have souls from conception, or whether there is a point between conception and birth where the fetus acquires a soul, consciousness, and/or personhood. Stances in this question might play a role in judgements on the morality of abortion.[13][14][15]
Trichotomy of the soul
Augustine (354-430), one of Western Christianity's most influential early Christian thinkers, described the soul as "a special substance, endowed with reason, adapted to rule the body". Some Christians espouse a trichotomic view of humans, which characterizes humans as consisting of a body (soma), soul (psyche), and spirit (pneuma).[16] However, the majority of modern Bible scholars point out how the concepts of "spirit" and of "soul" are used interchangeably in many biblical passages, and so hold to dichotomy: the view that each human comprises a body and a soul. Paul said that the "body wars against" the soul, "For the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two-edged sword, and piercing as far as the division of soul and spirit" (Heb 4:12 NASB), and that "I buffet my body", to keep it under control.
Tota in toto corpore
According to Saint Thomas Aquinas, the soul is «tota in toto corpore».[17][18][19] This means that the soul is entirely contained in every single part of the human body, and therefore ubiquitous and cannot be placed in a single organ (heart or brain, etc.), nor it is separable from the body (except after the body's death).
In the fourth book of
Views of various denominations
- Roman Catholicism
The present Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the term soul
- "refers to the innermost aspect of [persons], that which is of greatest value in [them], that by which [they are] most especially in God's image: ‘soul’ signifies the spiritual principle in [humanity]".[21]
All souls living and dead will be judged by Jesus Christ when he comes back to earth. The Catholic Church teaches that the existence of each individual soul is dependent wholly upon God:
- "The doctrine of the faith affirms that the spiritual and immortal soul is created immediately by God."[22]
- Protestantism
Protestants generally believe in the soul's existence and immortality, but fall into two major camps about what this means in terms of an
- Adventism
Various new religious movements deriving from Adventism — including Christadelphians,[26] Seventh-day Adventists,[27][28] and Jehovah's Witnesses[29][30] — similarly believe that the dead do not possess a soul separate from the body and are unconscious until the resurrection.
- Latter-day Saints ('Mormonism')
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that the spirit and body together constitute the Soul of Man (Mankind). "The spirit and the body are the soul of man."[31] Latter-day Saints believe that the soul is the union of a pre-existing, God-made spirit[32][33][34] and a temporal body, which is formed by physical conception on earth.
After death, the spirit continues to live and progress in the Spirit world until the resurrection, when it is reunited with the body that once housed it. This reuniting of body and spirit results in a perfect soul that is immortal, and eternal, and capable of receiving a fulness of joy.[35][36]
Latter-day Saint cosmology also describes "intelligences" as the essence of consciousness or agency. These are co-eternal with God, and animate the spirits.[37] The union of a newly-created spirit body with an eternally-existing intelligence constitutes a "spirit birth"[citation needed] and justifies God's title "Father of our spirits".[38][39][40]
Confucianism
Some Confucian traditions contrast a spiritual soul with a corporeal soul.[41]
Hinduism
Ātman is a
The six orthodox schools of Hinduism believe that there is Ātman (self, essence) in every being.[47]
In
The concept of jiva in Jainism is similar to
Islam
The Quran, the holy book of Islam, uses two words to refer to the soul: rūḥ (translated as spirit, consciousness, pneuma or "soul") and nafs (translated as self, ego, psyche or "soul"),[52][53] cognates of the Hebrew ruach and nefesh. The two terms are frequently used interchangeably, though rūḥ is more often used to denote the divine spirit or "the breath of life", while nafs designates one's disposition or characteristics.[54] In Islamic philosophy, the immortal rūḥ "drives" the mortal nafs, which comprises temporal desires and perceptions necessary for living.[3]
Several verses of the Quran that mention the rûh occur in chapters 17 ("The Night Journey") and 39 ("The Troops"):
And they ask you, [O Muhammad], about the Rûh. Say, "The Rûh is of the affair of my Lord. And mankind has not been given of knowledge except a little.
—Quran 17:85
And remember your Rabb inside your-self
—Quran 7:206
Allah takes the souls at the time of their death, and those that do not die [He takes] during their sleep. Then He keeps those for which He has decreed death and releases the others for a specified term. Indeed in that are signs for a people who give thought..
—Quran 39:42
Jainism
In Jainism, every living being, from plant or bacterium to human, has a soul and the concept forms the very basis of Jainism. According to Jainism, there is no beginning or end to the existence of soul. It is eternal in nature and changes its form until it attains liberation.
In Jainism, jiva is the immortal essence or soul of a living organism (human, animal, fish or plant etc.) which survives physical death.[55] The concept of Ajiva in Jainism means "not soul", and represents matter (including body), time, space, non-motion and motion.[55] In Jainism, a Jiva is either samsari (mundane, caught in cycle of rebirths) or mukta (liberated).[56][57]
According to this belief until the time the soul is liberated from the saṃsāra (cycle of repeated birth and death), it gets attached to one of these bodies based on the karma (actions) of the individual soul. Irrespective of which state the soul is in, it has got the same attributes and qualities. The difference between the liberated and non-liberated souls is that the qualities and attributes are manifested completely in case of siddha (liberated soul) as they have overcome all the karmic bondages whereas in case of non-liberated souls they are partially exhibited. Souls who rise victorious over wicked emotions while still remaining within physical bodies are referred to as arihants.[58]
Concerning the Jain view of the soul, Virchand Gandhi said
the soul lives its own life, not for the purpose of the body, but the body lives for the purpose of the soul. If we believe that the soul is to be controlled by the body then soul misses its power.[59]
Judaism
The
In Judaism, there was originally little to no concept of a soul. As seen in the Genesis, the divine breath simply animated bodies.
Then Yahweh God formed man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and so the man became a living being.
Judaism relates the quality of one's soul to one's performance of the commandments (
- Nefesh, related to natural instinct.
- Ruach, related to intellect and the awareness of God.
- Neshamah, related to emotion and morality.
- Chayah, considered a part of God, as it were.
- Yechidah. This aspect is essentially one with God.
Kabbalah also proposed a concept of reincarnation, the
Some Jewish traditions assert that the soul is housed in the luz bone, though traditions disagree as to whether it is the atlas at the top of the spine, or the sacrum at bottom of the spine.[citation needed]
Scientology
The Scientology view is that a person does not have a soul, it is a soul. It is the belief of the religion that they do not have the power to force adherents' conclusions.[65] Therefore, a person is immortal, and may be reincarnated if they wish. Scientologists view that one's future happiness and immortality, as guided by their spirituality, is influenced by how they live and act during their time on earth.[65] Scientology's term for the soul is "thetan", derived from the Greek word "theta", symbolizing thought. Scientology counselling (called auditing) addresses the soul to improve abilities, both worldly and spiritual. The ideologies surrounding this understanding align with those of the five major world religions.[65]
Shamanism
Soul dualism (also called "multiple souls" or "dualistic pluralism") is a common belief in Shamanism,[66][67][68] and is essential in the universal and central concept of "soul flight" (also called "soul journey", "out-of-body experience", "ecstasy", or "astral projection").[69][68][70][71][72] It is the belief that humans have two or more souls, generally termed the "body soul" (or "life soul") and the "free soul". The former is linked to bodily functions and awareness when awake, while the latter can freely wander during sleep or trance states.[67][70][71][72][73] In some cases, there are a plethora of soul types with different functions.[74][75]
Soul dualism and multiple souls are prominent in the traditional animistic beliefs of the
The belief in soul dualism is found throughout most
The "free soul" is said to leave the body and journey to the
In some ethnic groups, there can also be more than two souls. Like among the
Several
The
Shinto
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Shinto distinguishes between the souls of living persons (tamashii) and those of dead persons (mitama), each of which may have different aspects or sub-souls.
Sikhism
Sikhism considers soul (atma) to be part of God (Waheguru). Various hymns are cited from the holy book Guru Granth Sahib (SGGS) that suggests this belief. "God is in the Soul and the Soul is in the God."[87] The same concept is repeated at various pages of the SGGS. For example: "The soul is divine; divine is the soul. Worship Him with love."[88] and "The soul is the Lord, and the Lord is the soul; contemplating the Shabad, the Lord is found."[89]
The atma or soul according to Sikhism is an entity or "spiritual spark" or "light" in the human body - because of which the body can sustain life. On the departure of this entity from the body, the body becomes lifeless – no amount of manipulations to the body can make the person make any physical actions. The soul is the "driver" in the body. It is the roohu or spirit or atma, the presence of which makes the physical body alive.
Many[quantify] religious and philosophical traditions support the view that the soul is the ethereal substance – a spirit; a non-material spark – particular to a unique living being. Such traditions often consider the soul both immortal and innately aware of its immortal nature, as well as the true basis for sentience in each living being. The concept of the soul has strong links with notions of an afterlife, but opinions may vary wildly even within a given religion as to what happens to the soul after death. Many within these religions and philosophies see the soul as immaterial, while others consider it possibly material.
Taoism
According to Chinese traditions, every person has two types of soul called
Zoroastrianism
Other religious beliefs and views
In theological reference to the soul, the terms "life" and "death" are viewed as emphatically more definitive than the common concepts of "biological life" and "biological death". Because the soul is said to be transcendent of the material existence, and is said to have (potentially) eternal life, the death of the soul is likewise said to be an eternal death. Thus, in the concept of divine judgment, God is commonly said to have options with regard to the dispensation of souls, ranging from Heaven (i.e., angels) to hell (i.e., demons), with various concepts in between. Typically both Heaven and hell are said to be eternal, or at least far beyond a typical human concept of lifespan and time.
According to Louis Ginzberg, the soul of Adam is the image of God.[91] Every soul of human also escapes from the body every night, rises up to heaven, and fetches new life thence for the body of man.[92]
Spirituality, New Age, and new religions
Brahma Kumaris
In Brahma Kumaris, human souls are believed to be incorporeal and eternal. God is considered to be the Supreme Soul, with maximum degrees of spiritual qualities, such as peace, love and purity.[93]
Theosophy
In
Anthroposophy
Rudolf Steiner claimed classical trichotomic stages of soul development, which interpenetrated one another in consciousness:[94]
- The "sentient soul", centering on sensations, drives, and passions, with strong conative (will) and emotional components;
- The "intellectual" or "mind soul", internalizing and reflecting on outer experience, with strong affective (feeling) and cognitive (thinking) components; and
- The "consciousness soul", in search of universal, objective truths.
Miscellaneous
In Surat Shabda Yoga, the soul is considered to be an exact replica and spark of the Divine. The purpose of Surat Shabd Yoga is to realize one's True Self as soul (Self-Realisation), True Essence (Spirit-Realisation) and True Divinity (God-Realisation) while living in the physical body.
Similarly, the spiritual teacher Meher Baba held that "Atma, or the soul, is in reality identical with Paramatma the Oversoul – which is one, infinite, and eternal...[and] [t]he sole purpose of creation is for the soul to enjoy the infinite state of the Oversoul consciously."[95]
Eckankar, founded by Paul Twitchell in 1965, defines Soul as the true self; the inner, most sacred part of each person.[96]
G.I. Gurdjieff taught that humans are not born with immortal souls but could develop them through certain efforts.[97]
Philosophical views
Greek philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, understood that the soul (ψυχή psykhḗ) must have a logical faculty, the exercise of which was the most divine of human actions. At his defense trial, Socrates even summarized his teachings as nothing other than an exhortation for his fellow Athenians to excel in matters of the psyche since all bodily goods are dependent on such excellence (Apology 30a–b). Aristotle reasoned that a man's body and soul were his matter and form respectively: the body is a collection of elements and the soul is the essence.
Soul or
Francis M. Cornford quotes Pindar by saying that the soul sleeps while the limbs are active, but when one is sleeping, the soul is active and reveals "an award of joy or sorrow drawing near" in dreams.[100]
Erwin Rohde writes that an early pre-Pythagorean belief presented the soul as lifeless when it departed the body, and that it retired into Hades with no hope of returning to a body.[101]
Plato was the first thinker in antiquity to combine the various functions of the soul into one coherent conception: the soul is that which moves things (i.e., that which gives life, on the view that life is self-motion) by means of its thoughts, requiring that it be both a mover and a thinker.[102]
Socrates and Plato
Drawing on the words of his teacher Socrates, Plato considered the psyche to be the essence of a person, being that which decides how we behave. He considered this essence to be an incorporeal, eternal occupant of our being. Plato said that even after death, the soul exists and is able to think. He believed that as bodies die, the soul is continually reborn (metempsychosis) in subsequent bodies. However, Aristotle believed that only one part of the soul was immortal, namely the intellect (logos). The Platonic soul consists of three parts:[103]
- the logos, or logistikon (mind, nous, or reason)
- the thymos, or thumetikon (emotion, spiritedness, or masculine)
- the eros, or epithumetikon (appetitive, desire, or feminine)
The parts are located in different regions of the body:
- logos is located in the head, is related to reason and regulates the other part.
- thymos is located near the chest region and is related to anger.
- eros is located in the stomach and is related to one's desires.
Plato also compares the three parts of the soul or psyche to a societal
The soul is at the heart of Plato's philosophy. Francis Cornford described the twin pillars of Platonism as being the theory of the Forms, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the doctrine of the immortality of the soul.[104] Indeed, Plato was the first person in the history of philosophy to believe that the soul was both the source of life and the mind. In Plato's dialogues, we find the soul playing many disparate roles.[105] Among other things, Plato believes that the soul is what gives life to the body (which was articulated most of all in the Laws and Phaedrus) in terms of self-motion: to be alive is to be capable of moving yourself; the soul is a self-mover. He also thinks that the soul is the bearer of moral properties (i.e., when I am virtuous, it is my soul that is virtuous as opposed to, say, my body). The soul is also the mind: it is that which thinks in us.
We see this casual oscillation between different roles of the soul in many dialogues. First of all, in the Republic:
Is there any function of the soul that you could not accomplish with anything else, such as taking care of something (epimeleisthai), ruling, and deliberating, and other such things? Could we correctly assign these things to anything besides the soul, and say that they are characteristic (idia) of it?
No, to nothing else.
What about living? Will we deny that this is a function of the soul?
That absolutely is.[106]
The Phaedo most famously caused problems to scholars who were trying to make sense of this aspect of Plato's theory of the soul, such as Sarah Broadie[107] and Dorothea Frede.[108]
More-recent scholarship has overturned this accusation by arguing that part of the novelty of Plato's theory of the soul is that it was the first to unite the different features and powers of the soul that became commonplace in later ancient and medieval philosophy.[102] For Plato, the soul moves things by means of its thoughts, as one scholar puts it, and accordingly, the soul is both a mover (i.e., the principle of life, where life is conceived of as self-motion) and a thinker.[102]
Aristotle
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) defined the soul, or Psūchê (ψυχή), as the "
The various faculties of the soul, such as nutrition, movement (peculiar to animals), reason (peculiar to humans), sensation (special, common, and incidental) and so forth, when exercised, constitute the "second" actuality, or fulfillment, of the capacity to be alive. For example, someone who falls asleep, as opposed to someone who falls dead, can wake up and live their life, while the latter can no longer do so.
Aristotle identified three hierarchical levels of natural beings: plants, animals, and people, having three different degrees of soul: Bios (life), Zoë (animate life), and Psuchë (self-conscious life). For these groups, he identified three corresponding levels of soul, or biological activity: the nutritive activity of growth, sustenance and reproduction which all life shares (Bios); the self-willed motive activity and sensory faculties, which only animals and people have in common (Zoë); and finally "reason", of which people alone are capable (Pseuchë).
Aristotle's discussion of the soul is in his work, De Anima (On the Soul). Although mostly seen as opposing Plato in regard to the immortality of the soul, a controversy can be found in relation to the fifth chapter of the third book: in this text both interpretations can be argued for, soul as a whole can be deemed mortal, and a part called "active intellect" or "active mind" is immortal and eternal.[113] Advocates exist for both sides of the controversy, but it has been understood that there will be permanent disagreement about its final conclusions, as no other Aristotelian text contains this specific point, and this part of De Anima is obscure.[114] Further, Aristotle states that the soul helps humans find the truth, and understanding the true purpose or role of the soul is extremely difficult.[115]
Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis
Following Aristotle, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Ibn al-Nafis, an Arab physician, further elaborated upon the Aristotelian understanding of the soul and developed their own theories on the soul. They both made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and the Avicennian doctrine on the nature of the soul was influential among the Scholastics. Some of Avicenna's views on the soul include the idea that the immortality of the soul is a consequence of its nature, and not a purpose for it to fulfill. In his theory of "The Ten Intellects", he viewed the human soul as the tenth and final intellect.[116][117]
While he was imprisoned, Avicenna wrote his famous "
Avicenna generally supported Aristotle's idea of the soul originating from the
Thomas Aquinas
Following Aristotle (whom he referred to as "the Philosopher") and Avicenna, Thomas Aquinas (1225–74) understood the soul to be the first actuality of the living body. Consequent to this, he distinguished three orders of life: plants, which feed and grow; animals, which add sensation to the operations of plants; and humans, which add intellect to the operations of animals.
Concerning the human soul, his epistemological theory required that, since the knower becomes what he knows, the soul is definitely not corporeal—if it is corporeal when it knows what some corporeal thing is, that thing would come to be within it.
Aquinas affirmed in the doctrine of the divine effusion of the soul, the
Immanuel Kant
In his discussions of rational psychology, Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) identified the soul as the "I" in the strictest sense, and argued that the existence of inner experience can neither be proved nor disproved.
We cannot prove a priori the immateriality of the soul, but rather only so much: that all properties and actions of the soul cannot be recognized from materiality.
It is from the "I", or soul, that Kant proposes transcendental rationalization, but cautions that such rationalization can only determine the limits of knowledge if it is to remain practical.[125]
Philosophy of mind
Gilbert Ryle's ghost in the machine argument, which is a rejection of Descartes's mind–body dualism, can provide a contemporary understanding of the soul/mind, and the problem concerning its connection to the brain/body.[126]
Psychology
Soul belief prominently figures in
† Kierkegaard's use of "self" may be a bit confusing. He uses it to include
the symbolic self and the physical body. It is a synonym really for "total
personality" that goes beyond the person to include what we would now call
the "soul" or the "ground of being" out of which the created person sprang.
Science
According to Julien Musolino, the scientific consensus holds that the mind is a complex machine that operates on the same physical laws as all other objects in the universe.[129] According to Musolino, there is currently no scientific evidence whatsoever to support the existence of soul.[129]
The search for the soul is seen to have been instrumental in driving the understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the human body, particularly in the fields of cardiovascular and neurology.[130] In the two dominant conflicting concepts of the soul – one seeing it to be spiritual and immortal, and the other seeing it to be material and mortal, both have described the soul as being located in a particular organ or as pervading the whole body.[130]
Neuroscience
To study the mind in terms of the brain several methods of functional neuroimaging are used to study the neuroanatomical correlates of various cognitive processes that constitute the mind. The evidence from brain imaging indicates that all processes of the mind have physical correlates in brain function.[133] However, such correlational studies cannot determine whether neural activity plays a causal role in the occurrence of these cognitive processes (correlation does not imply causation) and they cannot determine if the neural activity is either necessary or sufficient for such processes to occur. Identification of causation, and of necessary and sufficient conditions requires explicit experimental manipulation of that activity. If manipulation of brain activity changes consciousness, then a causal role for that brain activity can be inferred.[134][135] Two of the most common types of manipulation experiments are loss-of-function and gain-of-function experiments. In a loss-of-function (also called "necessity") experiment, a part of the nervous system is diminished or removed in an attempt to determine if it is necessary for a certain process to occur, and in a gain-of-function (also called "sufficiency") experiment, an aspect of the nervous system is increased relative to normal.[136] Manipulations of brain activity can be performed with direct electrical brain stimulation, magnetic brain stimulation using transcranial magnetic stimulation, psychopharmacological manipulation, optogenetic manipulation, and by studying the symptoms of brain damage (case studies) and lesions. In addition, neuroscientists are also investigating how the mind develops with the development of the brain.[137]
Near-death experience
Neuroscience research hypothesizes that a near-death experience (an NDE) is a subjective phenomenon resulting from "disturbed bodily multisensory integration" that occurs during life-threatening events.[138] Some researchers of near-death experiences consider such a phenomena as a challenge to the
Physics
Physicist Sean M. Carroll has written that the idea of a soul is incompatible with quantum field theory (QFT). He writes that for a soul to exist: "Not only is new physics required, but dramatically new physics. Within QFT, there can't be a new collection of 'spirit particles' and 'spirit forces' that interact with our regular atoms, because we would have detected them in existing experiments."[143]
Parapsychology
Some
Weight of the soul
In 1901
See also
- Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul
- Being
- Chinese room
- Consciousness
- Ekam
- History of the location of the soul
- Kami
- Knowledge argument
- Metaphysical naturalism
- Mind–body problem
- Nafs in Islam
- Nishimta in Mandaeism
- The Over-Soul (essay)
- Paramatman (or oversoul)
- Philosophical zombie
- Open individualism
- Qualia
- Self
- Self-awareness
- Shade (mythology)
- Soul dualism
- Soul flight
- Spirit (vital essence)(seen as a synonym of soul)
- Substance dualism
- Vitalism
- Vertiginous question
References
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- ^ "soul, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
- ^ a b "Immortality of the Soul". jewishencyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
- ^ Peter Eardley and Carl Still, Aquinas: A Guide for the Perplexed (London: Continuum, 2010), pp. 34–35
- ^ "Soul", The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–07. Retrieved 12 November 2008.
- ^ "Found: An Ancient Monument to the Soul". The New York Times. 17 November 2008. Archived from the original on 24 April 2009. Retrieved 18 November 2008.
In a mountainous kingdom in what is now southeastern Turkey, there lived in the eighth century B.C. a royal official, Kuttamuwa, who oversaw the completion of an inscribed stone monument, or stele, to be erected upon his death. The words instructed mourners to commemorate his life and afterlife with feasts "for my soul that is in this stele."
- ISBN 978-0-87743-187-9. Retrieved 23 February 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-87743-187-9. Retrieved 23 February 2016.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-85398-270-8. Archivedfrom the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 23 February 2016.
- ^ Shih, Heng-Ching. "The Significance Of 'Tathagatagarbha'- A Positive Expression Of 'Sunyata'". Retrieved 15 July 2023.
- ^ Αρχιμ. Βλάχος, Ιερόθεος (30 September 1985). "Κεφάλαιο Γ'" (PDF). Ορθόδοξη Ψυχοθεραπεία (in Greek). Εδεσσα: Ιερά Μονή Τιμίου Σταυρού. p. Τι είναι η ψυχή. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
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- ^ ""Do Embryos Have Souls?", Father Tadeusz Pacholczyk, PhD, Catholic Education Resource Center". Catholiceducation.org. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
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- ^ "Soul". newadvent.org. 1 July 1912. Archived from the original on 28 November 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
In St. Paul we find a more technical phraseology employed with great consistency. Psyche is now appropriated to the purely natural life; pneuma to the life of supernatural religion, the principle of which is the Holy Spirit, dwelling and operating in the heart. The opposition of flesh and spirit is accentuated afresh (Romans 1:18, etc.). This Pauline system, presented to a world already prepossessed in favour of a quasi-Platonic Dualism, occasioned one of the earliest widespread forms of error among Christian writers – the doctrine of the Trichotomy. According to this, man, perfect man (teleios) consists of three parts: body, soul and spirit (soma, psyche, pneuma).
- ^ Thomas Aquinas, Quaestiones disputatae De Anima, Quaestio decima: Vtrum anima sit in toto corpore et in qualibet parte eius?
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- De Trinitate, quod anima est tota in toto corpore, et tota in qualibet parte eius.
- ^ "paragraph 363". Catechism of the Catholic Church. Retrieved 1 March 2023 – via Vatican.va.
- ^ "paragraph 382". Catechism of the Catholic Church. Archived from the original on 16 November 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2011 – via Vatican.va.
- ^ Helm, Paul (2006). John Calvin's Ideas. p. 129.
The Immortality of the Soul: As we saw when discussing Calvin's Christology, Calvin is a substance dualist.
- ^ Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (2010). The Classical Tradition. p. 480.
On several occasions, Luther mentioned contemptuously that the Council Fathers had decreed the soul immortal.
- ^ Marius, Richard (1999). Martin Luther: The Christian between God and death. p. 429.
Luther, believing in soul sleep at death, held here that in the moment of resurrection ... the righteous will rise to meet Christ in the air, the ungodly will remain on earth for judgment, ...
- ^ "Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith". Archived from the original on 16 February 2014.
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And the spirit and the body is the soul of man.
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Joseph Smith goes so far as to say that these spirits are made of a finer matter that we cannot see in our current state
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Boot, W.J. (2014). "3: Spirits, Gods and Heaven in Confucian thought". In Huang, Chun-chieh; Tucker, John Allen (eds.). Dao Companion to Japanese Confucian Philosophy. Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy. Vol. 5. Dordrecht: Springer. p. 83. ISBN 9789048129218. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
[...] Confucius combines qi with the divine and the essential, and the corporeal soul with ghosts, opposes the two (as yang against yin, spiritual soul against corporal soul) and explains that after death the first will rise up, and the second will return to the earth, while the flesh and bones will disintegrate.
- ISBN 978-0-19-861025-0, See entry for Atman (self).
- ^ ISBN 0-415-21527-7, pp. 208–09, Quote: "Advaita and nirguni movements, on the other hand, stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity of individual soul (atman) with the universal ground of being (brahman) or to find god within himself".
- ISBN 978-0-19-534013-6, p. 63; Quote: "Even though Buddhism explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of Atman ("soul") and Brahman, Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu."
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- ISBN 978-0-7914-2513-8, p. 64, Quote: "Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe. (...) Thus we can see in the Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm, culminating in the equating of atman with Brahman".
- ISBN 978-0-7914-2217-5, p. 64; "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."; Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 2, at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad, pp. 2–4; Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist ‘No-Self’ Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana? Archived 6 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Philosophy Now
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Citation: God had fashioned his (Adam's) soul with particular care. She is the image of God, and as God fills the world, so the soul fills the human body; as God sees all things, and is seen by none, so the soul sees, but cannot be seen; as God guides the world, so the soul guides the body; as God in His holiness is pure, so is the soul; and as God dwells in secret, so doth the soul. - ^ Ginzberg, Louis (1909). The Legends of the Jews Vol I, Chapter II: The Soul of Man Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine (Translated by Henrietta Szold) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.
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Immanuel Kant proposed the existence of certain mathematical truths (2+2 = 4)m that are not tied to matter, or soul.
Bishop, Paul (2000). Synchronicity and Intellectual Intuition in Kant, Swedenborg, and Jung. ISBN 978-0-7734-7593-9.
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These people were having these experiences when we wouldn't expect them to happen, when the brain shouldn't be able to sustain lucid processes or allow them to form memories that would last. So it might hold an answer to the question of whether mind or consciousness is actually produced by the brain or whether the brain is a kind of intermediary for the mind, which exists independently.... I started off as a sceptic but, having weighed up all the evidence, I now think that there is something going on. Essentially, it comes back to the question of whether the mind or consciousness is produced from the brain. If we can prove that the mind is produced by the brain, I don't think there is anything after we die because essentially we are conscious beings. If, on the contrary, the brain is like an intermediary which manifests the mind, like a television will act as an intermediary to manifest waves in the air into a picture or a sound, we can show that the mind is still there after the brain is dead. And that is what I think these near-death experiences indicate
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Quantum indeterminism is frequently invoked as a solution to the problem of how a disembodied soul might interact with the brain (as Descartes proposed), and is sometimes invoked in theories of libertarian free will even when they do not involve dualistic assumptions. [...] I conclude that Heisenbergian uncertainty is too small to affect synaptic function, and that amplification by chaos or by other means does not provide a solution to this problem. Furthermore, even if Heisenbergian effects did modify brain functioning, the changes would be swamped by those due to thermal noise.
- ^ Milbourne Christopher. (1979). Search for the Soul: An Insider's Report on the Continuing Quest by Psychics and Scientists for Evidence of Life After Death. Thomas Y. Crowell, Publishers.
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- MacDougall, Duncan(1907). "The Soul: Hypothesis Concerning Soul Substance Together with Experimental Evidence of the Existence of Such Substance". American Medicine. New Series. 2: 240–43.
- ^ "How much does the soul weights?". Live Science. December 2012. Archived from the original on 28 April 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-691-13355-3
- ISBN 978-1-84901-030-6
Further reading
- Batchelor, Stephen. (1998). Buddhism Without Beliefs. Bloomsbury Publishing.
- Bellarmine, Robert (1902). . Sermons from the Latins. Benziger Brothers.
- Bremmer, Jan (1983). The Early Greek Concept of the Soul. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03131-6. Retrieved 16 August 2007.
- Chalmers, David. J. (1996). The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Christopher, Milbourne. (1979). Search for the Soul: An Insider's Report on the Continuing Quest By Psychics & Scientists For Evidence of Life After Death. Thomas Y. Crowell, Publishers.
- Clarke, Peter (2014). "Neuroscience, Quantum Indeterminism and the Cartesian Soul". Brain and Cognition. 84 (1): 109–17. S2CID 895046.
- ISBN 978-1-84901-030-6
- McGraw, John J. (2004). Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul. Aegis Press.
- ISBN 978-0-8108-8677-3
- ISBN 978-0-691-13355-3
- Rohde, Erwin. (1925). Psyche: The Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality Among the Greeks, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., Ltd.
- Ryle, Gilbert. (1949) The Concept of Mind, London: Hutchinson.
- Spenard, Michael (2011) "Dueling with Dualism: the forlorn quest for the immaterial soul", essay. An historical account of mind-body duality and a comprehensive conceptual and empirical critique on the position. ISBN 978-0-578-08288-2
- Swinburne, Richard. (1997). The Evolution of the Soul. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Leibowitz, Aryeh. (2018). The Neshama: A Study of the Human Soul. Feldheim Publishers. ISBN 1-68025-338-7
- Kleivan, Inge; Sonne, B. (1985). "Arctic peoples". Eskimos. Greenland and Canada. Institute of Religious Iconography. Iconography of religions. Leiden, The Netherland): State University Groningen, via E.J. Brill. section VIII, fascicle 2. ISBN 90-04-07160-1.
- Gabus, Jean (1970). A karibu eszkimók (in Hungarian). Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó. Translation of the original: Gabus, Jean (1944). Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous. Libraire Payot Lausanne.
External links
- Quantum Theory Won't Save The Soul Archived 24 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- What Science Really Says About the Soul by Stephen Cave
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Ancient Theories of the Soul
- The soul in Judaism at Chabad.org
- The Old Testament Concept of the Soul by Heinrich J. Vogel]
- Body, Soul and Spirit Article in the Journal of Biblical Accuracy
- Is Another Human Living Inside You?
- Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. .
- "The Soul", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Richard Sorabji, Ruth Padel and Martin Palmer (In Our Time, 6 June 2002)