Soundscape
This article possibly contains original research. (July 2020) |
A soundscape is the acoustic
A soundscape is a
The term "soundscape" can also refer to an
Historical context
The origin of the term soundscape is somewhat ambiguous. It is often miscredited as having been coined by Canadian composer and naturalist, R. Murray Schafer, who indeed led much of the groundbreaking work on the subject from the 1960s and onwards. According to an interview with Schafer published in 2013 [9] Schafer himself attributes the term to city planner Michael Southworth. Southworth, a former student of Kevin Lynch, led a project in Boston in the 1960s, and reported the findings in a paper entitled "The Sonic Environment of Cities", in 1969,[1] where the term is used. To complicate matters, however, a search in Google NGram reveals that soundscape had been used in other publications prior to this. More research is needed to establish the historical background in detail.
Around the same time as Southworth's project in Boston, Schafer initiated the World Soundscape Project together with colleagues like Barry Truax and Hildegard Westerkamp. Schafer subsequently collected the findings from the world soundscape project and fleshed out the soundscape concept in more detail in his seminal work about the sound environment, "Tuning of the World".[10] Schafer has also used the concept in music education.[11]
In music
In music, soundscape compositions are often a form of
Irv Teibel's Environments series (1969–79) consisted of 30-minute, uninterrupted environmental soundscapes and synthesized or processed versions of natural sound.[13]
Music soundscapes can also be generated by automated software methods, such as the experimental TAPESTREA application, a framework for sound design and soundscape composition, and others.[14][15]
The soundscape is often the subject of mimicry in timbre-centered music such as
The environment
In Schafer's analysis, there are two distinct soundscapes, "hi-fi" and "lo-fi", created by the environment. A hi-fi system possesses a positive
All sounds are unique in nature. They occur at one time in one place and cannot be replicated. In fact, it is physically impossible for nature to reproduce any phoneme twice in exactly the same manner.[17]
According to Schafer there are three main elements of the soundscape:
- Keynote sounds
- This is a musical term that identifies the key of a piece, not always audible ... the key might stray from the original, but it will return. The keynote sounds may not always be heard consciously, but they "outline the character of the people living there" (Schafer). They are created by nature (geography and climate): wind, water, forests, plains, birds, insects, animals. In many urban areas, traffic has become the keynote sound.
- Sound signals
- These are foreground sounds, which are listened to consciously; examples would be warning devices, bells, whistles, horns, sirens, etc.
- Soundmark
- This is derived from the term landmark. A soundmark is a sound which is unique to an area. In his 1977 book, The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World, Schafer wrote, "Once a Soundmark has been identified, it deserves to be protected, for soundmarks make the acoustic life of a community unique."[18]
The elements have been further defined as to essential sources:
Bernie Krause, naturalist and soundscape ecologist, redefined the sources of sound in terms of their three main components: geophony, biophony, and anthropophony.[19][20][21]
- Geophony
- Consisting of the prefix, geo (gr. earth), and phon (gr. sound), this refers to the soundscape sources that are generated by non-biological natural sources such as wind in the trees, water in a stream or waves at the ocean, and earth movement, the first sounds heard on earth by any sound-sentient organism.
- Biophony
- Consisting of the prefix, bio (gr. life) and the suffix for sound, this term refers to all of the non-human, non-domestic biological soundscape sources of sound.
- Anthropophony
- Consisting of the prefix, anthro (gr. human), this term refers to all of the sound signatures generated by humans.
In health care
Research has traditionally focused mostly on the negative effects of sound on human beings, as in exposure to
Soundscapes from a computerized acoustic device with a camera may also offer synthetic vision to the blind, utilizing human echolocation, as is the goal of the seeing with sound project.[28]
Soundscapes and noise pollution
Papers on noise pollution are increasingly taking a holistic, soundscape approach to noise control. Whereas acoustics tends to rely on lab measurements and individual acoustic characteristics of cars and so on, soundscape takes a top-down approach. Drawing on John Cage's ideas of the whole world as composition,[citation needed] soundscape researchers investigate people's attitudes to soundscapes as a whole rather than individual aspects – and look at how the entire environment can be changed to be more pleasing to the ear. This body of knowledge approaches the sonic environment subjectively as well, as in how some sounds are tolerated while others disdained, with still others preferred, as seen in Fong's 2016 research comparing the soundscapes of Bangkok, Thailand and Los Angeles, California.[29] To respond to unwanted sounds, however, a typical application of this is the use of masking strategies, as in the use of water features to cover unwanted white noise from traffic. It has been shown that masking can work in some cases, but that the successful outcome is dependent on several factors, like sound pressure levels, orientation of the sources, and character of the water sound.[30][31]
Research has shown that variation is an important factor to consider, as a varied soundscape give people the possibility to seek out their favorite environment depending on preference, mood and other factors.
Soundscaping as a method to reducing noise pollution incorporates natural elements rather than just man made elements.[33] Soundscapes can be designed by urban planners and landscape architects. By incorporating knowledge of soundscapes in their work, certain sounds can be enhanced, while others can be reduced or controlled.[34] It has been argued that there are three main ways in which soundscapes can be designed: localization of functions, reduction of unwanted sounds and introduction of wanted sounds,[30] each of which should be considered to ensure a comprehensive approach to soundscape design.
In United States National Parks
The National Park Service Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division[35] actively protects the soundscapes and acoustic environments in national parks across the country. It is important[according to whom?] to distinguish and define certain key terms as used by the National Park Service. Acoustic resources are physical sound sources, including both natural sounds (wind, water, wildlife, vegetation) and cultural and historic sounds (battle reenactments, tribal ceremonies, quiet reverence). The acoustic environment is the combination of all the acoustic resources within a given area – natural sounds and human-caused sounds – as modified by the environment. The acoustic environment includes sound vibrations made by geological processes, biological activity, and even sounds that are inaudible to most humans, such as bat echolocation calls. Soundscape is the component of the acoustic environment that can be perceived and comprehended by the humans. The character and quality of the soundscape influence human perceptions of an area, providing a sense of place that differentiates it from other regions. Noise refers to sound which is unwanted, either because of its effects on humans and wildlife, or its interference with the perception or detection of other sounds. Cultural soundscapes include opportunities for appropriate transmission of cultural and historic sounds that are fundamental components of the purposes and values for which the parks were established.
See also
- Ambient music
- Anthropophony
- Biomusic
- Biophony
- Ecoacoustics
- Environments (series)
- Field recording
- Geophony
- Musique concrète
- Noise map
- Program music
- Sharawadji effect
- Sound art
- Sound installation
- Sound map
- Sound sculpture
- Soundscape ecology
- Space music
- Underwater acoustics
References
- ^ S2CID 130685505.
- ^ Schafer, R. Murray (1977). The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World. Alfred Knopf.
- PMID 27069661.
- ISBN 9781567505375.
- ISBN 978-0-30020631-9.
- ISBN 978-0-8264-1845-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-07225-0.
- ISBN 978-0-595-34365-2.
- ^ Darò, C (2013). Avant-gardes Sonores en architecture [Avant-garde in sonic architecture]. Dijon: Les Presses du Réel.
- ^ Schafer, Murray, R. (1977). The soundscape : our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. Rochester, Vermont: Destiny Books.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Schafer, R.M (1969). The new soundscape: a handbook for the modern music teacher. Toronto: Berandol Music.
- ISBN 978-0-262-18215-7.
- ^ Teibel, Irv. "Mother Nature Goes Digital". Atari Archives. Retrieved 18 November 2015.
- ^ Boodler ambient soundscape generator written in Python
- ^ fLOW ambient soundscape generator (Apple Macintosh)
- ^ Levin, Theodore (2006). Where Rivers and Mountains Sing, Sound, Music and Nomadism in Tuva and Beyond. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- ^ a b c Schafer, Murray (2004). Audio Culture: Readings in Modern Music. New York, NY: Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 29–38.
- ISBN 978-089281455-8.
- ISBN 978-0-316-08687-5.
- ^ Krause, B (January–February 2008). "The Anatomy of a Soundscape". Journal of the Audio Engineering Society. 56 (1/2).
- .
- PMID 24183105.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - PMID 20617017.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - S2CID 4826491.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ PMID 23245705.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ Hägerhäll, C., Taylor, R., Cerwén, G., Watts, G., Van den Bosch, M., Press, D. & Minta, S. (2018). Biological mechanisms and neurophysiological responses to sensory impact from nature.In: Van den Bosch & M.Bird, W. (eds.) Oxford Textbook of Nature and Public Health. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ PMID 27973437.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ Seeing with Sound
- S2CID 30362727.
- ^ ISBN 978-91-7760-073-2.
- ^ Rådsten Ekman, Maria (2015). Unwanted Wanted Sounds: Perception of Sounds from Water Structures. Stockholm: Stockholm University.
- S2CID 55692349.
- ^ "Soundscaping | Sound Control". soundcontroltech.com. Retrieved 2017-04-19.
- S2CID 55857646.
- ^ National Park Service Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division
- ^ Sounds recorded in national parks
- ^ Yellowstone National Park Sound Library
Further reading
- 1969 The New Soundscape - R. Murray Schafer
- 1974 Soundscape studies: An introduction to the World Soundscape Project. Truax, B. Numus-West, 5, pp. 36–39.
- 1977 The Tuning of the World - R. Murray Schafer (ISBN 0-394-40966-3)
- These 2 works were adapted to become part of the 1993 book, The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World - R. Murray Schafer (ISBN 0-88985-005-4)
- These 2 works were adapted to become part of the 1993 book, The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World - R. Murray Schafer (
- 1978 Handbook for Acoustic Ecology - ISBN 0-88985-011-9)
- 1985 Acoustic Communication : Second Edition - Barry Truax & ISBN 1-56750-537-6
- 1994 Soundscapes: Essays on Vroom and Moo, Eds: Jarviluoma, Helmi - Department of Folk Tradition
- 2002/2016 Wild Soundscapes: Discovering the Voice of the Natural World - ISBN 0300218192) - book & QR link to audio
- 2002 Linking Soundscape Composition and Acoustic Ecology - Hildegard Westerkamp:
- 2003 Site Soundscapes: Landscape architecture in the light of sound - ISBN 978-3-639-09413-8
- 2004 "Voicescapes: The (en)chanting voice & its performance soundscapes" in Soundscape: The Journal of Acoustic Ecology Vol.5 No.2 - Henry Johnson 26-29 ISSN 1607-3304
- 2004 The Auditory Culture Reader (Sensory Formations) - ISBN 1-85973-618-1)
- 2005 "Acoustic Ecology Considered as a Connotation: Semiotic, Post-Colonial and Educational Views of Soundscape" in Soundscape: The Journal of Acoustic Ecology Vol.6 No.2 - ISSN 1607-3304)
- 2006 Qualitative Judgements of Urban Soundscapes: Questionning [sic] Questionnaires and Semantic Scales - Raimbault, Manon, Acta Acustica united with Acustica 92(6), 929–937
- "Soundscapes / Paesaggi sonori". Lo Squaderno (10). December 2008. ISSN 1973-9141. Archived from the originalon 2009-07-26. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
- 2006, "Gebiete, Schichten und Klanglandschaften in den Alpen. Zum Gebrauch einiger historischer Begriffe aus der Musikethnologie", Marcello Sorce Keller, in T. Nussbaumer (ed.), Volksmusik in den Alpen: Interkulturelle Horizonte und Crossovers, Salzburg, Verlag Mueller-Speiser, 2006, pp. 9–18.
- 2006 The West Meets the East in Acoustic Ecology (Tadahiko Imada ISBN 4-9903332-1-7
- 2008 "Soundscape, postcolonial and music education: Experiencing the earliest grain of the body and music" - Tadahiko Imada in Music Education Policy and Implementation: International Perspectives (ISBN 978-4-902774-39-9
- 2009 A Little Sound Education - R. Murray Schafer & Tadahiko Imada (ISBN 978-4-393-93539-2
- 2012 The Great Animal Orchestra: Finding the Origins of Music in the World's Wild Places, Bernie Krause, Little Brown New York, ISBN 978-0-316-08687-5
- 2015 Voices of the Wild: Animal Songs, Human Din, and the Call to Save Natural Soundscapes - ISBN 978-0-300-20631-9) - book & links to audio examples
- 2016 Acoustic Competence: Investigating sonic empowerment in urban cultures. Berlin / Johannesburg - Felix Urban (Marburg: Tectum Verlag) ISBN 978-3-8288-3683-9
- 2016 Fong, Jack "Making Operative Concepts from Murray Schafer's Soundscapes Typology: A Qualitative and Comparative Analysis of Noise Pollution in Bangkok, Thailand and Los Angeles, California." Urban Studies 53(1):173-192.
- 2016 Soundscape and the Built Environment. Kang, J. & Schulte-Fortkamp, B. (eds.) (2016). Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis Group.
- 2016 Chatty maps: constructing sound maps of urban areas from social media data. Luca Maria Aiello, Rossano Schifanella, Daniele Quercia, Francesco Aletta (2016). Royal Society Open Science.
- 2017 Sound in Landscape Architecture: A Soundscape Approach to Noise. Cerwén, G. Alnarp: SLU ISBN 978-91-7760-073-2
External links
- World Forum for Acoustic Ecology (WFAE)
- Soundscape: The Journal of Acoustic Ecology, published by WFAE
- How Sound Affects Us (8:18)—TED talk by Julian Treasure
- Napolisoundscape Urban Space Research Web archive of the audio mapping of the city of Naples
- SonorCities: Learning Culture through City Soundscapes – An Educational Tool