Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism

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In

sources of dharma, as expressed in Classical Hindu law
, philosophy, rituals and customs.

The first two are undisputed epistemic sources (

pramāṇa), where śruti
holds the ultimate or supreme authority as Śāstra pramāṇam, while there is difference of opinion for ācāra and ātmatuṣṭi.

Etymology

Pramāṇa literally means "proof" and is also a concept and field of Indian philosophy. The concept is derived from the Sanskrit roots, pra (प्र), a preposition meaning "outward" or "forth", and mā (मा) which means "measurement". Pramā means "correct notion, true knowledge, basis, foundation, understand", with pramāṇa being a further nominalization of the word.[2][3] Thus, the concept Pramāṇa implies that which is a "means of acquiring prama or certain, correct, true knowledge".[4]

Natya-Shastra (theatre & dance) and others.[5][7]

With regard to sāstra pramāṇam is refers to the authority to the Vedic scriptures, as expressed in

Bhagavadgita chapter 16, verse 24, where Krishna commands Arjuna to follow the authority of the scriptures:[8][9]

tasmāt śāstraṁ pramāṇam te kāryākārya vyavasthitau
jñātvā śāstravidhānoktam karma kartumihārhasi

Therefore, let the (vedic) scriptures (śāstraṁ) be your authority (pramāṇam) in determining what should be done and what should not be done.
Understand the scriptural injunctions and teachings, and then perform your actions in this world accordingly.[10][note 1]

Sruti, smriti, ācāra and ātmatuṣṭi are also the four

sources of dharma in classical Hindu law, as expressed in Bhavishya Purana
, Brahmaparva, Adhyaya 7:

vedaḥ smṛtiḥ sadācāraḥ svasya ca priyamātmanaḥ
etaccaturvidhaṃ prāhuḥ sākshāddharmasya lakshaṇam

Vedas, smritis, good (approved) tradition and what is agreeable to one's soul (conscience),
the wise have declared to be the four direct evidences of dharma.[11][note 2]

The explanation of that sloka has been given in the digest (nibandha), bāla nibandhādarśa: there in dharma, vedas are the only chief pramāna. Smritis dissect (analyze) the essence of vedas only. Both of them support Sadācāra. Ātmasantuṣṭi that is favourable to all these is (then) dharma pramāna.[12] [note 3]

Śruti

Main articles: Sruti and Śabda

Shruti (

Upaniṣads.[14][15] Bhagavad Gita is also referred as Gitopaniṣad, thereby according it the status of Upanishad (i.e. Śruti), even though it is originally part of smṛti.[16][17][18]

Vedic Sages such as Baudhayana, Parāśara, Vedavyāsa, Gautama,[note 4] Vaśiṣṭha,[note 5] Āpastamba,[note 6] Manu,[note 7] and Yājñavalkya have adhered this view in their works.

The main schools of Indian philosophy that reject the (epistemic authority of)

Nāstika, i.e. heterodox in the tradition.[21]

Smriti

Main article: Smriti

Smriti (

Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy.[13][22][23] The authority of smriti accepted by orthodox schools, is derived from that of shruti, on which it is based.[24][25]

The Smrti literature is a corpus of diverse varied texts.

Dharmasūtras and Dharmaśāstras (or Smritiśāstras), the Arthasaśāstras, the Purānas, the Kāvya or poetical literature, extensive Bhasyas (reviews and commentaries on Shrutis and non-Shruti texts), and numerous Nibandhas (digests) covering politics, ethics (Nitisastras),[26] culture, arts and society.[27][28]

Each Smriti text exists in many versions, with many different readings.[14] Smritis were considered fluid and freely rewritten by anyone in ancient and medieval Hindu tradition.[14][22]

The authors of 18 smritis are namely, Atri, Viṣṇu, Hārīta, Auśanasī, Āngirasa, Yama, Āpastamba, Samvartta, Kātyāyana, Bṛhaspati, Parāśara, Vyāsa, Śaṅkha, Likhita,[note 8] Dakṣa, Gautama, Śātātapa and Vaśiṣṭha.[29] Yājñavalkya gives the list of total 20 by adding two more Smritis, namely, Yājñavalkya and Manu.[30][31][note 9] Parāśara whose name appears in this list, enumerates also twenty authors, but instead of Samvartta, Bṛhaspati, and Vyāsa, he gives the names of Kaśyapa, Bhṛgu and Prachetas.

Purāṇas

Āpastamba and Vyasa considers the

purāṇas as antepenultimate epistemic authority or tṛtīya pramāṇa. In Āpastambasmṛti, it has been mentioned as[note 10]

yat adṛṣṭam hi vedeṣu tat draṣṭavyaṃ smṛtau kila
ubhābhyāṃ yat adṛṣṭastu tat purāṇeṣu paṭhyate

Whenever there is no reference in vedas then smṛtis are to be referred.
In case references are absent in them both, then purāṇas are to be consulted.[note 11]

Vyāsasmṛti (verse 1.5) state that

śrutismṛtipurāṇokta dharmayogyāstu netare

The sayings of Vedas, smṛtis and puranas are deemed to be dharma and not others.[note 12]

Ācāra

Main article: Ācāra

Ācāra (

customary laws or community norms of a particular social group.[34] These community norms are delineated and put into practice by people who have earned the respect of those within each individual group, such as a community leader or elder. Although in Dharmaśāstra the ideal person who defines the ācāra of a particular place is dictated as one who knows the Vedas or is “learned”, in actual practice this role is often deferred to group leaders along with Vedic scholars.[35] Ācāra is theologically important in classical Hindu law because it is considered, along with the Vedas (Śruti), and Smriti (traditional texts such as the Dharmaśāstra literature), to be one of the sources of dharma.[36] Particular regional ācāra is believed to be canonized in Dharmaśāstra texts; however scholars differ on the source for the actual accounts found within these texts.[37]

The Anuśāsana-parva of the Mahabharatastates:

dharmaṃ jijñāsamānānāṃ pramāṇaṃ prathamaṃ śrutiḥ
dvitīyaṃ dharmaśāstraṃ tu tṛtīyo lokasangrahaḥ

Those who have the 'desire to know dharma' (dharma jijñāsa), the first pramāṇa is śruti.
The second pramāṇa are the dharmaśāstras (i.e. the dharma part of smṛti). The third reference is as per the custom of the people.[note 13]

To Parāśara

Vaśiṣṭha, Śruti and Smṛti are more important sources than others.[39] The Padma Purana also prescribes as similar view.[note 15]

While citing Śiṣṭāgama[note 16] (lit. that which has come down from Śiṣṭas) as the antepenultimate authority after Vedas and smirtis by Baudhayana in his smriti (verse 1.5), the Śiṣṭas are defined thus:-Sistas (indeed are those) who are free from envy (vigatamatsarāḥ), free from pride (nirahankārāḥ), contented with a store of grain sufficient for ten days (kumbhīdhānyāḥ), free from covetousness (alolupāḥ), and free from hypocrisy (damba), arrogance (darpa), greed (lobha), perplexity (confusion) and anger (krodha).[41]

Kumarila Bhatta, prominent Mīmāṃsā scholar from early medieval India
states in his Tantravartika:

If the practices of good men (Sadāchāra) are not in conflict with what is taught in the veda and smṛti, such practices can be regarded as authoritative in matters relating to dharma, but when there is the least thing repugnant to the teaching of the Veda, then, as there would be a conflict of authorities, the practices cannot be regarded as any authority at all.[42]

Ātmaṣtuṭi

Main article: Atmatusti

Ātmaṣtuṭi is usually translated into English as being "what is pleasing to oneself."

Hindu Law tradition. Textual accounts of Manu's and Yajnavalkya's placement of Ātmatuṣṭi as a fourth source of dharma can be found in The Law Code of Manu 2.6 and The Law Code of Yajnavalkya 1.7. Also, Ātmatuṣṭi does not share the same authority as sruti, smriti, and acara. Ātmatuṣṭi differs significantly from the other three sources of dharma in that it is not based on an "authority exterior to man"; in other words, an individual is able to create their own authority for any issue not covered under sruti, smriti, and acara.[44]

Ātmatuṣṭi is also known as Hṛdayānujña (free will) is mentioned also by Manu, Yājñavalkya and Vishnu distinctly mention this as a or source of moral and religion knowledge.[45] Yājñavalkya goes further step adding good intent (samyaksaṃkalpa) as additional fifth source of Dharma:

śrutiḥ smṛtiḥ sadācāraḥ svasya ca priyam ātmanaḥ
samyaksaṃkalpajaḥ kāmo dharmamūlaṃ idaṃ smṛtam

The source of dharma is declared to be fivefold: 1) śrutiḥ; 2) smṛtiḥ; sadācāraḥ (right conduct); svasya ca priyam ātmanaḥ (one's own benefit) and
5) desire born of purposeful intention (samyaksaṃkalpajaḥ kāmaḥ).[46][note 17]

Later, samyaksaṃkalpa (Pali: sammā saṅkappa) was included among the

Gautama Buddha.[48]

Instances of conflict

Conflict between different epistemic sources, generally termed as virodha. When there is an instance of conflict between the smriti and the śruti, the śruti shall prevail.[49][note 18] Similarly, Whenever there is conflict between different epistemic sources in general, then as per Āpastamba, it is advised to refer more preceding epistemic sources as they hold more authority. In Āpastambasmṛti, it is mentioned as

śrutismṛtipurāṇeṣu viruddheṣu parasparam
pūrvaṃ pūrvaṃ balīyam syāditi nyāyavido viduḥ

Whenever there is mutual conflict between vedas, smṛtis and purāṇas, then the ones well-versed in nyāya suggest that
more preceding epistemic source holds higher weightage (than the later epistemic one)[note 19]

Vedavyasa
also holds a similar view in his vyāsasmṛti, verse 1.4

śruti smṛti purāṇām virodho yatra driśyate tatra śrotam pramāṇāstu tayordhvyadhe smṛtirvarā

In cases where conflicts are apparent among veda, smriti and Purana, Veda is the valid authority; and where remaining two (Smriti and Purana) are in conflict, Smriti is the valid authority[50][note 20]

Prasthanatrayi

Main article: Prasthanatrayi

The

Madhwa
, etc.

Modern usage and criticism

Śāstra pramāṇam has been used by social reformers for 19th century from

Gurazada Apparao
to eradicate social evils.

Baba Saheb

Sarda Act.[56]

See also

References

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  2. ^ प्रमा Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
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    , page 237-238
  4. ^ pramANa Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
  5. ^ a b c Monier Williams, Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Article on zAstra
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  7. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1
    , page 626
  8. ISBN 9788175059337. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help
    )
  9. Wikidata Q854700
  10. Wikidata Q108659922
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  11. ^ "ఏడవ అధ్యాయము - 7. వివాహ ధర్మ వర్ణనము".
  12. ISBN 9788175059337. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help
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  13. ^
    ISBN 978-0823931798
    , page 656-657
  14. ^
    ISBN 0-7190-1867-6
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  19. ISBN 9788120816084
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  20. ^ Apastamba Dharmasūtram (Sanskrit), Dr. Umeshchandra Pandey, Chaukamba Press (Varanasi), 1969
  21. ISBN 9780521438780
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  22. ^
    ISBN 978-0857284303
    , pages 41-58
  23. ISBN 978-0-19-512430-9
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  26. ^ smRti Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
  27. ^ Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pages 103-130
  28. ISBN 978-0824820855
    , pages 16-18
  29. ^ "Aṣṭādaśasmṛtayaḥ". Kṣemarāja Śrīkṛṣṇadāsa. Veṅkaṭeśvara Steam Press, Mumbai. 1910.
  30. ^ "The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Miscellany". Wm. H. Allen & Company. Parbury, Allen & Co. 1828. p. 156.
  31. ^ "Tattwabodhini Sabha and the Bengal Renaissance". Amiyakumar Sen. Publication Section, Sadharan Brahmo Samajo. 1979. p. 291.
  32. ^ https://www.astrojyoti.com/pdfs/DevanagariFiles/06Yagyavalkya_Smriti.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  33. ^ Kandukuri Vireesalingam (1882). stri punarvivāha śāstrasangrahamu (PDF). p. 686.
  34. ^ Davis, Jr. Donald R. Chapter One.
  35. ^ Davis, Jr. Donald R. Chapter Seven
  36. ^ Davis, Jr. Donald R. Chapter One
  37. ^ Lariviere, Richard W. 1997. pp. 612.
  38. ISBN 9788171005833
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  39. ISBN 9788124610084. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help
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  40. ISBN 9781683832454. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help
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  41. ^ a b https://www.astrojyoti.com/pdfs/DevanagariFiles/baudhayana_smriti.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  42. ISBN 9788120816084
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  43. ^ Olivelle, Patrick. 2004. The Law Code of Manu. 2.6.
  44. ^ Lingat 1973, p. 6.
  45. ^ "Journal & Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 6". Asiatic Society. 1911. p. 300.
  46. ISBN 9781134077427
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  47. ^ "Yajnavalkya-Smrti (Plain text)".
  48. ^ Ajahn Brahm (27 May 2018). "Word of the Buddha".
  49. ISBN 9781134691159. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help
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  50. ISBN 9780231526609. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help
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  51. ^ https://www.astrojyoti.com/pdfs/DevanagariFiles/02Vyasa_Smriti.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  52. ^ Vepa, Kosla. The Dhaarmik Traditions. Indic Studies Foundation.
  53. ISBN 9780231526609
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  54. ISBN 978-81-85604-54-1
    . Retrieved 8 November 2018.
  55. ^ Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, 1936. Anhilation of Caste. p. 54
  56. ^ "The Child Marriage Restraint Act (Act XIX of 1929)" (PDF). A. S. Srinivasa Aiyyar. The Law Publishing Company, Mylapore, Madras. 1930.

Notes

  1. ^ तस्मात् शास्त्रं प्रमाणं ते कार्याकार्यव्यवस्थितौ । ज्ञात्वा शास्त्रविधानोक्तं कर्म कर्तुमिहार्हसि ॥
  2. ^ वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः । एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद्धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥
  3. ^ तत्र धर्मे मुख्यं प्रमाणं वेद एव। वेदार्थमेव विसकलयन्ति स्मृतिः। तदुभय समर्थितश्च आचारः। तदनुकूलैव च आत्मसन्तुष्टि धर्मे प्रमाणम् ॥
  4. Gautama dharmasūtras state that Vedo dharmamūlam tadvidām ca śmṛtiśīle (lit. means "Vedas are primary source of our moral ideals and beliefs. After vedas, the authority of śmṛti is accepted in this respect").[19]
  5. ^ Vaśiṣṭha Dharmasūtra state that śrutismṛti vihito dharmaḥ (lit. means "Vedas and smṛtis taken together have been regarded as source of dharma (of course, the former given the first preference).
  6. ^ Āpastamba Dharmasūtram state that vedā eva mūlapramāṇaṃ dharmādharmayoḥ (Sanskrit: वेदा एव मूलप्रमाणं धर्माधर्मयोः, lit. means "Vedas alone is primary source (mūlapramāṇaṃ ) for dharma and adharma.").[20]
  7. ^ Manusmriti states that Śrutistu vedo vigneyaḥ (lit. means "Know that Vedas are Śruti").
  8. ^ Śaṅkha, Likhita are brothers, and wrote each a smriti separately, and another jointly, and the three now considered as only one work.
  9. ^ manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkya āṅgirāḥ
    yamāpastambasamvartāḥ kātyāyanabṛhaspatī
    parāśaravyāsaśaṅkhalikhita dakṣagautamo
    śātātapovaśiṣṭhaśca dharmaśastrayojakāḥ     (Yājñavalkyasmṛti (1.4, 1.5))
    (Sanskrit: मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योऽङ्गिराः। यमापस्तम्बसम्वर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती॥ पराशरव्यासशङ्खलिखिता दक्षगौतमो।शातातपोवशिष्ठश्च धर्मशस्त्रयोजकाः॥[32])
  10. Kandukuri Veeresalingam Pantulu has quoted these slokas from Āpastambasmṛti in his Telugu essay on widow remarriage, stri punarvivāha śāstrasangrahamu.[33]
  11. ^ यददृष्टम् हि वेदेषु तत् द्रष्टव्यं स्मृतौ किल । उभाभ्यां यददृष्टस्तु तत् पुराणेषु पठ्यते ॥
  12. ^ श्रुतिस्मृतिपुराणोक्तधर्मयोग्यास्तु नेतरे॥
  13. ^ धर्मं जिज्ञासमानानां प्रमाणं प्रथमं श्रुतिः । द्वितीयं धर्मशास्त्रं तु तृतीयो लोकसंग्रहः ॥
  14. ^ Parāśarasmṛti (1.20) mentions that śrutismṛtisadācāranirṇetārśca sarvadā (Sanskrit:श्रुतिस्मृतिसदाचारनिर्णेतार्श्च सर्वदा ॥lit. means "Śruti, Smr̥ti and Sadācāra are always the deciders.")
  15. ^ The Padma Purana as quoted in Bhakti-Sandarbhah states Śrutismr̥tī mamaivājñe yaste ullaṅghya vartate, Ājñācchedī mama dveṣī madbhakto’pi na vaiṣṇavaḥ (Sanskrit:श्रुतिस्मृती ममैवाज्ञे यस्ते उल्लङ्घ्य वर्तते । आज्ञाच्छेदी मम द्वेषी मद्भक्तोऽपि न वैष्णवः ॥lit. means "Śruti and Smr̥ti are in truth My commands. Whoever transgresses them, disobeys Me and is a hater of Me. Though a devotee, He is not a votary of Viṣṇu.").[40]
  16. ^ upaviṣṭo dharmaḥ prativedam tasyānuvyākhyāsyāmaḥ smārto dvitīyaḥ tṛtīyaḥ śiṣṭāgamaḥ Baudhayana smriti (1.1 to 1-4)
    (Sanskrit:उपविष्टो धर्मः प्रतिवेदम्। तस्यानुव्याख्यास्यामः। स्मार्तो द्वितीयः। तृतीयः शिष्टागमः।).[41]
  17. ^ श्रुतिः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियं आत्मनः । सम्यक्संकल्पजः कामो धर्ममूलं इदं स्मृतम् ॥[47]
  18. ^ : श्रुतिस्मृति विरोधे तु श्रुतिरेव गरीयसी॥ (śrutismṛti virodhe tu śrutireva garīyasī)
  19. ^ श्रुतिस्मृतिपुराणेषु विरुद्धेषु परस्परम् । पूर्वं पूर्वं बलीयं स्यादिति न्यायविदो विदुः ॥
  20. ^ श्रुतिस्मृति पुराणां विरोधो यत्र द्रिश्यते । तत्र श्रोतं प्रमाणास्तु तयोर्ध्व्यधे स्मृतिर्वरा ॥[51]
  21. ^ In 1882 Telugu essay on widow remarriage, stri punarvivāha śāstrasangrahamu

Sources

  • Davis, Jr. Donald R. Forthcoming. Spirit of Hindu Law
  • Lingat, Robert (1973), The Classical Law of India, University of California Press

Further reading

  • Domenico Francavilla (2006), The roots of hindu jurisprudence: sources of Dharma and interpretation in Mīmāṃsā and Dharmaśāstra

External links

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