Soviet Air Forces
Soviet Air Forces | |
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Военно-Воздушные Силы СССР Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily SSSR | |
Il-78 |
The Soviet Air Forces (Russian: Военно-Воздушные Силы Союза Советских Социалистических Республик, tr. Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily Soyuza Sovetskih Sotsialisticheskih Respublik, VVS SSSR; literally "Military Air Forces of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics"; initialism VVS, sometimes referred to as the "Red Air Force", were one of the air forces of the Soviet Union. The other was the Soviet Air Defence Forces. The Air Forces were formed from components of the Imperial Russian Air Service in 1917, and faced their greatest test during World War II. The groups were also involved in the Korean War, and dissolved along with the Soviet Union itself in 1991–92. Former Soviet Air Forces' assets were subsequently divided into several air forces of former Soviet republics, including the new Russian Air Force. The "March of the Pilots" was its marching song.
Origins
The All-Russia Collegium for Direction of the Air Forces of the Old Army (translation is uncertain) was formed on 20 December 1917. This was a
It became the Directorate of the USSR Air Forces on 28 March 1924, and then the Directorate of the Workers-Peasants Red Army Air Forces on 1 January 1925.
Soviet Armed Forces |
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Components |
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Ranks of the Soviet Military |
History of the Soviet Military |
After the creation of the Soviet state many efforts were made in order to modernize and expand aircraft production, led by its charismatic and energetic commander, General
Historical Air Forces of Russia |
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Russian Empire |
Emperor's Military Air Fleet (1909–1917) |
Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic |
Workers and Peasants Red Air Fleet (1918–1991) |
USSR, Commonwealth of Independent States |
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Russian Federation |
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1927 structure
In March 1927, the organizational structure of the Red Army Air Force was as follows:[4]
- Headquarters, VVS RKKA
- Headquarters VVS Moscow Military District
- Headquarters 10th Brigade
- 25th Aviation Park 1st rank, 26th Aviation 2nd rank, 27th Aviation Park 3rd rank, 28th Aviation Park 3rd rank
- 7th, 30th, and 40th Aviation Squadrons
- 20th, 10th, 45th, and 3rd Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters 10th Brigade
- Headquarters VVS Leningrad Military District
- Headquarters 1st Brigade
- 1st Aviation Park 1st rank
- 1st, 28th, 55th, and 57th Aviation Squadrons
- 1st, 41st, and 85th Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters 3rd Brigade
- 6th Aviation Park 1st rank
- 11th, 33rd and 34th Aviation Squadrons
- 21st Separate Aviation Detachment
- Headquarters 1st Brigade
- Headquarters VVS Belorussian Military District
- Headquarters 2nd Brigade
- 11th Aviation Park 1st rank
- 22nd and 43rd Aviation Squadrons
- 4th and 43rd Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters 6th Brigade
- 13th Aviation Park 1st rank
- 5th, 9th and 18th Aviation Squadrons
- 84th Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters 8th Brigade
- 15th and 17th Aviation Parks 1st rank
- 16th and 52nd Aviation Squadrons
- 5th, 11th, 23rd and 27th Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters 2nd Brigade
- Headquarters VVS Ukrainian Military District
- 22nd Aviation Park 2nd rank
- 24th Aviation Squadron
- 30th Separate Aviation Detachment
- Headquarters 5th Brigade
- 20th Aviation Park 1st rank
- 3rd, 20th, and 50th Aviation Squadrons
- 14th, 17th, 37th, and 83rd Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters 7th Brigade
- 21st Aviation Park 1st rank, 23rd Aviation Park 2nd rank
- 31st and 36th Aviation Squadrons
- 32nd and 8th Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters VVS North Caucasus Military District
- 31st and 32nd Aviation Parks 3rd rank
- 26th and 9th Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters VVS Central Asian Military District
- 37th and 38th Aviation Parks 3rd rank
- 35th and 40th Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters VVS Siberian Military District
- 41st, 42nd, and 43rd Aviation Parks 3rd rank
- 25th, 19th, and 6th Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters VVS Red Banner Caucasus Army
- 34th and 35th Aviation Parks 3rd rank
- 44th and 70th Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters VVS Volga Military District
- 39th Aviation Park 3rd rank
- 42nd Separate Aviation Detachment
- Headquarters VVS Baltic Sea Fleet
- 62nd and 66th Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters VVS Black Sea Fleet
- 60th Aviation Squadron
- 64th, 55th, 48th, 50th, and 53rd Separate Aviation Detachments
- Headquarters VVS Moscow Military District
Units with honorifics were the 7th Dzerzhinsky, 9th Voroshilov, 16th Ultimatum, 20th Frunze, 24th Ilyich, 30th Red Moscow, and 40th Lenin Aviation Squadrons, and 6th Siberian Revolutionary Committee and 24th Far Eastern Ultimatum Separate Aviation Detachments.[4]
Spanish civil war
One of the first major tests for the VVS came in 1936 with the
On 19 November 1939, VVS headquarters was again titled the Main Directorate of the Red Army Air Forces under the WPRA HQ.
1930s aviation and propaganda
Positive heroism
The early 1930s saw a shift in ideological focus away from collectivist propaganda and towards "positive heroism."[5] Instead of glorifying socialist collectivism as a means of societal advancement, the
Transpolar flights of 1937
In May 1937, Stalin charged pilots Chkalov, Baydukov, and Belyakov with the mission to navigate
The public reaction to the transpolar flights was euphoric. The media called the pilots "
Folkloric themes in aviation propaganda
Paternalism was also a theme that Soviet propagandists exploited in aviation culture. The media presented Stalin as an example and inspiration, a father figure and role model to the most prominent Soviet pilots of the period.[13] When recounting stories of meetings between Stalin and Chkalov, for example, Soviet newspapers spoke of Stalin's paternalism towards the young pilot. The paternal metaphor was completed with the addition of a maternal figure—Russia, the motherland, who had produced "father" Stalin's heroic sons such as Chkalov.[12]
The use of familial metaphors not only evoked traditional hereditary pride and historic Russian patriotism, they boosted Stalin's image as a benevolent leader. Most importantly, paternalism served to promote the message of individual subordination to authority.[14] Through his paternal relationships with Soviet pilots, Stalin developed an "ethos of deference and obedience"[13] for Soviet society to emulate.
Aviation and the purges
The successful achievements in Soviet aviation also came during the worst days of the Great Purge. The transpolar flights in summer 1937 occurred following the arrest and execution of a large body of the Red Army officer corps.[15] Fifteen of sixteen total army commanders were executed; more than three-fourths of the VVS senior officers were arrested, executed, or relieved of duty.[16] News coverage of the arrests was relatively little compared to treatment of aviation exploits, deflecting attention away from the arrests.[17]
Early combat
Some practical combat experience had been gained in participating in the Spanish Civil War, and against Japan in the Far Eastern border conflicts. Shortly before the start of war with Germany a Soviet Volunteer Group was sent to China to train the pilots from the Republic of China Air Force for the continuing war with the Japanese. However, these experiences proved of little use in the Winter War against Finland in 1939, where scores of inexperienced Soviet bomber and fighter pilots were shot down by a relatively small number of Finnish Air Force pilots. The VVS soon learned established Soviet air defence procedures derived from the Spanish Civil War, such as forming defensive circles when attacked, did not work well against the Finns, who employed dive-and-zoom tactics to shoot down their Soviet opponents in great numbers.
On 1 January 1941, six months prior to
Early World War II aviation failures
1930s Soviet aviation also had a particular impact on the USSR's military failures in the beginning of World War II. By 1938, the Soviet Union had the largest air force in the world, but Soviet aeronautical design distinctly lagged behind Western technological advances.[21] Instead of focusing on developing tactical aircraft, the Soviets engineers developed heavy bomber planes only good for long distance—in other words, planes that would be used for record-breaking flights like those of Chkalov's.[22][23] The Soviet government's focus on showy stunts and phenomenal record-breaking missions drained resources needed for Soviet defense. When Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, it quickly became apparent that the Soviet Air Force was not prepared for war.[24] Poor planning and lack of organization left planes sitting at airbases, allowing the Luftwaffe to destroy 4,000 Soviet planes within the first week.[25]
World War II
At the outbreak of World War II, the Soviet Armed Forces was not yet ready or suitable for winning a war: Joseph Stalin had said in 1931 Soviet industry was "50 to 100 years behind"[26] the Western powers. By the end of the war, Soviet annual aircraft production had risen sharply, reaching 40,241 in 1944. Some 157,261 machines were produced during the war, 125,655 being of combat types.[27]
On the outbreak of war the Red Army Air Force consisted of the Long-Range Bomber Aviation (Дальнебомбардировочная авиация); Frontal Aviation, serving the various land forces fronts; Army Aviation; and Force Aviation, all subordinate to the
One of the main reasons for the large aircraft losses in the initial period of war with Germany was not the lack of modern tactics, but the lack of experienced pilots and ground support crews, the destruction of many aircraft on the runways due to command failure to disperse them, and the rapid advance of
The principal VVS aircraft during World War II were the
The 31st Bomber Aviation Regiment, equipped with Pe-2s, was one of the first
Women
Alone among World War II combatants, the Soviet Air Force initiated a program to bring women with existing flying training into combat air groups.
The latter two air force units were honored by being renamed Guards units. Beyond the three official regiments, individual Soviet women sometimes served alongside airmen in otherwise all-male groups.[33] Women pilots, navigators, gunners, mechanics, armament specialists and other female ground personnel made up more than 3,000 members of the VVS. Women pilots flew 24,000 sorties.
Innovation and Lend-lease
While there were scores of Red Army divisions on the ground formed from specific Soviet republics, there appears to have been very few aviation regiments formed from nationalities, among them being the 1st Latvian Night Aviation Regiment.[34]
As with many Allied countries in World War II, the Soviet Union received Western aircraft through Lend-Lease and the Anglo-Soviet Agreement, mostly Bell P-39 Airacobras, Bell P-63 Kingcobras, Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawks, Douglas A-20 Havocs, Hawker Hurricanes, and North American B-25 Mitchells. Some of these aircraft arrived in the Soviet Union in time to participate in the Battle of Moscow, and in particular with the PVO or Soviet Air Defence Forces.[36] Soviet fliers in P-39s scored the highest individual kill totals of any ever to fly a U.S. aircraft. Two air regiments were equipped with Supermarine Spitfire Mk.Vbs in early 1943 but immediately experienced unrelenting losses due to friendly fire as the British aircraft looked too much like the German Bf 109.[37] The Soviet Union was then supplied with some 1,200 Spitfire Mk. IXs from 1943. Soviet pilots liked them but they did not suit Soviet combat tactics and the rough conditions at the forward airfields close to the front lines. Spitfires Mk. IXs were therefore assigned to air defense units, using the high altitude performance to intercept and pursue German bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. By 1944, the Spitfire IX was the main fighter used in this role and would remain so until 1947. Lend-Lease aircraft from the U.S. and UK accounted for nearly 12% of total Soviet air power.[38]
The greatest Soviet fighter ace of World War II was
Cold War
This section includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (July 2010) |
In 1945–46, the WPKA Army Air Forces became the Soviet Air Forces once again. Its capabilities increased, helped by Western transfer of technology: the downed
During the Cold War, the Soviet Air Force was rearmed, strengthened and modern air doctrines were introduced. At its peak in 1980, it could deploy approximately 10,000 aircraft, making it the world's largest air force of the time.[40]
The Soviet Air Force covertly participated in the
In 1977 the VVS and the
Western analysts found that Soviet non-Slavs, including Jews, Armenians, and Asians were generally barred from senior ranks and from joining elite or strategic positions in the Air Force, Strategic Rocket Forces, and the Soviet Navy because of doubts regarding the loyalty of ethnic minorities. RAND analyst S. Enders Wimbush said, "Soldiers are clearly recruited in a way that reflects the worries of society. The average Russian citizen and Soviet decision maker have questions about the allegiance of the non-Slav, especially the Central Asian."[44][45][46] [47]
During the Cold War the VVS was divided into three main branches:
The official day of VVS was the
Breakup of the Soviet Union
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 the aircraft and personnel of the Soviet VVS were divided among the newly independent states. Russia received the plurality of these forces, approximately 40% of the aircraft and 65% of the manpower, with these forming the basis for the new Russian Air Force.
Forces in the late 1980s
The Soviet Air Force's aviation assets were organised into four types of forces (sing. вид авиации) - Long Range Aviation, Frontal Aviation, Military Transport Aviation and Army Aviation (which would transfer to the Ground Forces in case of war). Pilot training establishments were integrated into the Air Armies of the Frontal Aviation.
Type of aviation | Aviation arm | Higher command echelons | Notes |
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Long Range Aviation (дальная авиация) | a single arm | Air Armies of the Supreme Military Command Reserve (Strategic Purpose) (ВА РГК (СН)) under the Air Force Main Staff. | Included:
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Frontal Aviation (фронтовая авиация) | Fighter aviation (истребительная авиация) |
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Provided air cover of the ground forces and escort to own aviation assets. Secondary tasks included ground attack with unguided ordnance, air reconnaissance and tactical nuclear strike. In the late 1980s its types of aircraft included the Su-27S, the MiG-29 and the MiG-23MLD. |
Bomber aviation (бомбардировочная авиация) | Main mission was penetration of enemy air defences and precision strikes against enemy targets in operational depth. Secondary tasks included close air support, aerial reconnaissance and tactical nuclear strike. In the late 1980s its air regiments flew the Su-24 and the upgraded Su-24M with a handful (no more than 20) of the Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses-specialised Su-24MP variant. | ||
Fighter-bomber aviation (истребительно-бомбардировочная авиация) | Main mission was penetration of enemy air defences and precision strikes against enemy targets in tactical depth. Secondary tasks included close air support, aerial reconnaissance and tactical nuclear strike. In the late 1980s its air regiments flew the MiG-27 and (in limited numbers) the Su-17M. | ||
Ground attack aviation (штурмовая авиация) | Main mission was battlefield close air support and destruction of armored targets from low and extra low altitude. Its air regiments flew the Su-25. | ||
Reconnaissance aviation (разведывательная авиация) | The reconnaissance aviation included two types of units:
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Transport aviation (транспортная авиация) | The Military Transport Aviation provided strategic airlift and airborne dropping capabilities to the Soviet military. The transport aviation provided tactical airlift capabilities, liaison and medevac assets. It included Composite Air Regiments and Composite air Squadrons flying mostly An-26 aircraft and Mi-8 helicopters. | ||
Special Aviation (специальная авиация) | Main units in this category included electronic warfare and intelligence aircraft, based on modified airliners, EW and ELINT helicopters and aerial command posts, based mostly on the Mi-8 and UAV reconnaissance squadrons.
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Military transport aviation (Военно-транспортная авиация) | a single arm | Military Transport Aviation HQ under the Air Force Main Staff. | |
Army aviation (армейская авиация) | a single arm | Attached to the Air Armies in peace time. To transfer to the Ground Forces in case of war. At the end of 1990 right before the collapse of the USSR the Army Aviation was transferred to the Ground Forces and became one of their branches. |
Higher command echelons of the Air Forces
Operationally subordinated to the Main Staff of the Air Forces | |||
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HQ | Notes | ||
Units directly subordinated to the Main Staff of the Air Forces (Части центрального подчинения Главного штаба ВВС) | See Directly subordinated to the AF Main Staff section below. | Moscow, RSFSR | |
Military Transport Aviation Command (Командование военнотранспортной авиации) | Moscow, RSFSR | Belonged to the Military Transport Aviation. | |
Aviation of the Reserve of the Supreme Military Command (Авиация Резерва Главного Командования) | 30th Smolenskaya Red Banner Air Army of Strategic Purpose (30-я Смоленская краснознаменная воздушная армия стратегического назначения) | Irkutsk, RSFSR | Belonged to the Long Range Aviation. |
37th Air Army of Strategic Purpose (37-я воздушная армия стратегического назначения) | Moscow, RSFSR | Belonged to the Long Range Aviation. | |
46th Air Army of Strategic Purpose (46-я воздушная армия стратегического назначения) | Smolensk, RSFSR | Belonged to the Long Range Aviation. | |
4th Air Army of Operational Purpose (4-я воздушная армия оперативного назначения) | Legnica, Polish People's Republic | Belonged to the Frontal Aviation. Under Air Forces HQ in peace time. To transfer to Supreme Command of the Western Strategic Direction control in wartime. | |
24th Air Army of Operational Purpose (24-я воздушная армия оперативного назначения)[50] | Vinnitsa, Ukrainian SSR | Belonged to the Frontal Aviation. Under Air Forces HQ in peace time. To transfer to Supreme Command of the South-Western Strategic Direction control in wartime. Based in the Kiev Military District in peace time, which lead to the KMD's own 17th Red Banner Air Army (17-я краснознаменная воздушная армия) being made up of training units in peace time. | |
Operationally subordinated to the Military Districts and the Groups of Forces | |||
High Command of the Forces of the Western Strategic Direction (Главное командование войск Западного направления) - HQ in Legnica, Polish People's Republic | |||
directly subordinated | (transferred from Air Force HQ in wartime):
4th Air Army of Operational Purpose (4-я воздушная армия оперативного назначения) |
Legnica, Polish People's Republic | |
Western Group of Forces (Западная группа войск)
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16th Red Banner Air Army | Wünsdorf (suburb of Zossen), German Democratic Republic | The Western Group of Forces is the new designation of the recently renamed German Democratic Republic .
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Central Group of Forces (Центральная группа войск) | No Air Army.
(131st Mixed Air Division) |
Milovice, Czechoslovak People's Republic | Central Group of Forces were based in the Czechoslovak People's Republic .
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Northern Group of Forces (Северная группа войск) | No Air Army.
(4th AIr Army of Operational Purpose was based in the Northern Group of Forces's AOR.) |
Northern Group of Forces were based in the Polish People's Republic. | |
Belorussian Military District (Белорусский военный округ)
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26th Red Banner Air Army (26-я краснознаменная воздушная армия) | Minsk, Belarus SSR | On 15 June 1992, by decree No. 05 of the Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Belarus, the 26th Air Army headquarters became the command of the Air Forces of the Republic of Belarus. |
Carpathian Military District (Прикарпатский военный округ) | 14th Red Banner Air Army | Lviv, Ukrainian SSR | |
(Naval forces operationally attached):
Twice awarded the Red Banner Baltic Fleet (Дважды Краснознамённый Балтийский флот) |
Air Forces of the Baltic Fleet
(ВВС Балтийского флота) |
Kaliningrad, Kaliningrad Oblast, RSFSR | Belonged to the Naval Aviation. |
(Air Defence forces operationally attached): | 2nd Separate Air Defence Army (2-я отдельная армия ПВО) | Minsk, Belarus SSR | Belonged to the Air Defence Forces. |
High Command of the Forces of the South-Western Strategic Direction (Главное командование войск Южно-Западного направления) - HQ in Chișinău, Moldavian SSR | |||
directly subordinated | (transferred from Air Force HQ in wartime):
24th Air Army of Operational Purpose (24-я воздушная армия оперативного назначения) |
Vinnitsa, Ukrainian SSR | |
Southern Group of Forces
(Южная группа войск) |
36th Red Banner Air Army | Debrecen, Hungarian People's Republic | The Southern Group of Forces were based in the Hungarian People's Republic. |
Kiev Military District
(Киевский военный округ) |
17th Red Banner Air Army | Kiev, Ukrainian SSR | Consisted of Air Force higher schools. |
Odessa Military District
(Одесский военный округ) |
5th Red Banner Air Army | Odessa, Ukrainian SSR | |
(Naval forces operationally attached): | Air Forces of the Black Sea Fleet
(ВВС Черноморского флота) |
Sevastopol, Ukrainian SSR | Belonged to the Naval Aviation. |
High Command of the Forces of the Southern Strategic Direction (Главное командование войск Южного направления) - HQ in Baku, Azerbaijan SSR | |||
North Caucasus Military District
(Северо-Кавказский военный округ) |
Air Forces of the North Caucasus Military District (ВВС Северо-Кавказского военного округа) | ||
Transcaucasus Military District
(Закавказский военный округ) |
34th Air Army
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Tbilisi, Georgian SSR | |
Turkestan Military District
(Туркестанский военный округ) |
73rd Air Army
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Alma Ata, Kazakh SSR | Until June 1, 1989, the TMD's air army was the 49th Air Army (HQ in Tashkent, Uzbek SSR). The 73rd Air Army controlled the Air Force assets of the Central Asian Military District. On June 1, 1989, the CAMD was disbanded and integrated back into the TMD. The two air armies were therefore also integrated, with the new command retaining the designation of the 73rd. |
High Command of the Forces of the Far East (Главное командование войск Дальнего Востока) - HQ in Ulan-Ude, RSFSR | |||
Far Eastern Military District (Дальневосточный военный округ) | 1st Red Banner Air Army (1-я краснознаменная воздушная армия) | Khabarovsk, RSFSR | |
Transbaikal Military District (Забайкальский военный округ) | 23rd Red Banner Air Army | Chita, RSFSR | |
(Naval forces operationally attached): | Air Forces of the Pacific Fleet
(ВВС Тихоокеанского флота) |
Vladivostok, RSFSR | Belonged to the Naval Aviation. |
internal military districts | |||
Moscow Military District
(Московский военный округ) |
Air Forces of the Moscow Military District (ВВС Московского военного округа) | Formerly the 78th Air Army. | |
Leningrad Military District
(Ленинградский военный округ) |
76th Red Banner Air Army | Leningrad, RSFSR | |
Baltic Military District
(Прибалтийский военный округ) |
15th Air Army | Riga, Latvian SSR | |
Volga-Ural Military District
(Приволжско-Уральский военный округ) |
Air Forces of the Volga-Ural Military District (ВВС Приволжско-Уральского военного округа) | Sverdlovsk (present-day Yekaterinburg), RSFSR | The Volga Military District and the Ural Military District were merged on September 1, 1989, into the Volga-Ural Military District. Due to their remoteness from the front lines in a possible armed conflict, the two military district were tasked with mainly with training (including pilot training for the Air Forces). For that reason the newly unified military district held 1st place by total aircraft quantity of all the military districts and groups of forces (1735 units), but this changed to 16th place if only combat aircraft were taken into consideration. |
Siberian Military District
(Сибирский военный округ) |
Air Forces of the SIberian District (ВВС Сибирского военного округа) | Due to its remoteness from the front lines in a possible armed conflict, the SMD were tasked with mainly with training (including pilot training for the Air Forces). For that reason the military district held the median 9th place by total aircraft quantity of all the military districts and groups of forces, but this changed to dead-last 19th place if only combat aircraft were taken into consideration.[51] | |
In addition, the 34th Mixed Aviation Corps (ru:34-й смешанный авиационный корпус), later re-designated to the Air Forces of the 40th Army, supported the 40th Army in Afghanistan during the Soviet–Afghan War. Its HQ was in Kabul, Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, co-located with the HQ of the 40th Army itself.
Directly subordinated to the AF Main Staff
Several formations and flying units were directly subordinated to the Air Forces Main Staff (Главный штаб ВВС).[52] They provided air transport for high-ranking government and military officials, flight testing or support to other research and development fields.
Units directly subordinated to the Main Staff:
- 21st Aviation Squadron of Flying Laboratories - Kubinka - An-12, An-26, Mi-8
- 27th Helicopter Squadron - Kazakh SSR - Mi-8 (provided liaison flight support to the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Center)
- 101st Test [Support] Aviation Squadro (287th according to some sources) - Uzbek SSR - An-26, Mi-8 (provided support to the 8th Chemical Defence Station test range on the Ustyurt Plateau)
- 220th Test [Support] Aviation Squadron of Specific Purpose - Aralsk, Kazakh SSR - An-72, An-26, Mi-26, Mi-8, An-2 (provided airborne telemetric surveillance support to the Kapustin Yar missile test range. The airfield also provided liaison flights to the top-secret "Barkhan" bacteriological warfare test range on Vozrozhdeniya Island)
- unidentified Aviation Squadron - Klin - Tu-134, An-12, An-26, An-24, Mi-8 (Klin air base was also considered the 'household' airfield of the Air Defence Forces aviation and a mixed air regiment was based there with the mission to provide liaison flights to the Air Defence Forces Main Staff and flight skills refreshment for the high ranking pilot officers)
- Transport Aviation Squadron - Privolzhskiy (near Astrakhan) - Il-18, An-26, Mi-8 (provided liaison flights to the 116th Combat Application Training Center of the Air Defence Aviation
- 2nd State Central Test Range (designation in some sources given as the) - Semipalatinsk
- Transport Aviation Squadron - ZATO Kurchatov-21(also listed sometimes as the Semipalatinsk-21) - An-30RR, An-24RR, Mi-8/9 (RR - Radiation Reconnaissance)
- Transport Aviation Squadron - Semipalatinsk (Zhanasemei airfield) - An-30, An-24RR
- Transport Aviation Squadron -
- 5th Central Scientific Research Institute (designation in some sources given as the - Voronezh
- Composite Aviation Squadron - Voronezh Airport - Il-20, Mi-8 (EW)
- Composite Aviation Squadron - Voronezh Airport - Il-20, Mi-8 (
- 8th Aviation Division of Specific Purpose - Chkalovsky
- 353th Aviation Regiment of Specific Purpose - Chkalovsky - Il-62, Tu-154, Tu-134, Il-18, Il-76, An-72
- 354th Aviation Regiment of Specific Purpose - Chkalovsky - Il-76, Il-22, An-12, An-26, An-24
- (355th Aviation Regiment of Specific Purpose - Chkalovsky - disbanded in 1989 and absorbed into the 353rd Aviation Regiment along with its Tu-134 and Tu- 154 aircraft)
- Composite Aviation Squadron - Chkalovsky - Il-80 (4 aircraft), Il-76RT (2 aircraft) (attached to the 8th ADSP for air traffic control, ground support and maintenance, but reporting directly to the Ministry of Defence. The Il-80 was the airborne command center variant of the Il-86 and the Soviet counterpart to the E-4. The four Il-80 received command task force of officers detailed from the Ministry of Defence when on airborne duty. The two Il-76RT were relay aircraft (RT - 'retranslator') and had no command task force on board. They provided Ultra high frequency link between the Soviet nuclear triad and the command centers and were equipped with drag antennae array, which could extend to a total length of 6 kilometers. The Navy's SSBNs and the Air Force's Long Range Aviation normally used alternative communications channels, so the main task for the Il-76RTs remained to provide a link to the Strategic Rocket Forces. The command and control system was designated "Chain Link" ("Звено") and included the Il-80s, the Il-76RTs, the underground silo-based 'Perimetr' and the railway-based 'Gorn' command alert missiles.)
- High Command of the Forces of the Southern Strategic Direction - Baku, Azerbaijan SSR
- 300th Composite Aviation Squadron - Kala - Tu-154, Tu-134, Il-22, An-26, An-24, Mi-6, Mi-8/9, Ka-27PS, An-2, Mi-2
- High Command of the Forces of the South-Western Strategic Direction - Kishinev, Moldavian SSR
- 153rd Composite Aviation Squadron - Kishinev - Tu-134, Il-22, An-72, An-26, An-24, Mi-8/9
- Warsaw Pact Organisation
- 929th State Flight Test Center named after V. P. Chkalov of the Ministry of Defence of the USSR - Akhtubinsk (testing of each type of military aircraft destined for the Air Force, Air Defence Forces, Naval Aviation and export)
- 75th Composite Aviation Regiment - Akhtubinsk - Ан-12, Ан-26, Ан-24, Ан-72, Ту-154, Ми-8
- 333rd Composite Aviation Regiment - Akhtubinsk - Tu-16, MiG-21
- Air Force Test Pilots Training Center - Akhtubinsk - MiG-21, L-39, Yak-40, An-26, Mi-8
- Composite Aviation Regiment of Specific Purpose - Су-27, МиГ-29, Ка-25, Ка-27, Ми-14, Ка-29, Ан-12, Ан-72, Ил-38, Ту-142, MI-6, Mi-8, Як-38 (flight testing of naval aviation)
- 368th Composite Aviation Squadron - Nalchik Airport - An-12, Mi-8 (mountain testing)
- 47th Composite Aviation Squadron - An-26, Mi-8
- Composite Aviation Squadron - Il-76, An-12, An-72, An-26
- Helicopter Squadron - Mi-26, Mi-6, Mi-8
- Aviation Flight (possibly two separate air flights based at Chkalovsky, one flying Il-20 and another one flying Il-22)
- Nizhny Tagil Metal Proving Institute
- Flight Test Base - Salka airfield, Nizhny Tagil - Tu-16, Su-24, Su-25, MiG-21, An-12, An-24 (testing of aviation armaments)
Military Transport Aviation
The Soviet Military Transport Aviation had the following structure in the end of the 1980s:[53]
Military Transport Aviation Command, Moscow, RSFSR
- 18th Guards Taganrogskaya, awarded the Order of the Red Banner, the Order of Suvorov and the Order of Kutuzov Military Transport Aviation Division, Šiauliai, Lithuanian SSR
- 128th Guards Leningradskiy, awarded the Order of the Red Banner Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Panevėžys, Lithuanian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76M
- 196th Guards Minskiy Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Tartu, Estonian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76M
- 600th Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Kėdainiai, Lithuanian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76
- 117th Radio-electronic warfare, Šiauliai, Lithuanian SSR - Antonov An-12PP/PPS
- 128th Guards
- 6th Guards Zaporozhskaya, awarded the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky Military Transport Aviation Division, Kryvyi Rih, Ukrainian SSR[54]
- 37th Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Artsyz, Ukrainian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76
- 338th Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Zaporizhzhia, Ukrainian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76
- 363rd Cherkaskiy, awarded the Order of Suvorov and the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Kryvyi Rih, Ukrainian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76
- 7th Military Transport Aviation Division Melitopol, Ukrainian SSR
- 25th Moskovskiy Military Transport Aviation Regiment - Ilyushin Il-76
- 175th Military Transport Aviation Regiment - Ilyushin Il-76
- 369th Military Transport Aviation Regiment - Ilyushin Il-76
- 3rd Guards Smolenskaya, awarded the Order of Suvorov and the Order of Kutuzov Military Transport Aviation Division, Vitebsk, Byelorussian SSR
- 110th Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Krechevitsy (near Novgorod), RSFSR - Ilyushin Il-76
- 334th Berlin Red Banner, Vitebsk, Byelorussian SSR - Ilyushin Il-76
- 12th Mginskaya Red Banner Military Transport Aviation Division, Tver, RSFSR
- 566th Solnechnogorskiy, awarded the Order of the Red Banner and the Order of Kutuzov Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Seshta (near Bryansk), RSFSR - Antonov An-124
- 978th Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Seshta (near Bryansk), RSFSR - Antonov An-124 (2 squadrons), Ilyushin Il-76 (1 squadron)
- 8th Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Tver, RSFSR - Antonov An-22
- 81st Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Ivanovo - Severny - Antonov An-22
- separate Military Transport Aviation regiments:
- 192nd Guards Kerchenskiy Red Banner Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Ukkurey, Chita Oblast, RSFSR - Ilyushin Il-76MD
- 708th Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Taganrog, Rostov Oblast, RSFSR - Ilyushin Il-76MD
- 930th Komsomolskiy Transylvanskiy Red Banner Military Transport Aviation Regiment, Zavitinsk, Amur Oblast, RSFSR - Antonov An-12
- 194th Guards Bryanskiy Red Banner Military Transport Aviation Regiment named after N. F. Gastello, Fergana, Uzbek SSR - Antonov An-12
- training establishments
- 610th Center for Combat Training and Conversion of Flight Personnel of the Military Transport Aviation, Ivanovo - Severny - Ilyushin Il-76 (2 training and 1 test and evaluation squadrons)
- wartime mobilization assets
- the State-owned flag carrier Aeroflot was wartime mobilization reserve to the Military Transport Aviation, with some Il-76 aircraft of the civilian air company as much as retaining the aft self-defence gun turrets (Aeroflot Il-76MD)
- airlift assets outside the Military Transport Aviation
- 8th Aviation Division of Special Purpose, Moscow - Chkalovskiy Air Base, RSFSR - transport and command aviation unit for the USSR's high officials
- 70th Transport Regiment of Special Purpose,
- 353rd Transport Regiment of Special Purpose,
- 354th Transport Regiment of Special Purpose, Moscow - Chkalovskiy Air Base, RSFSR - Tupolev Tu-134, Tu-154
- Separate Aviation Squadron for Command and Retranslation, Il-82
- Each Strategic Direction Command and each Military District also had a Composite Aviation Regiment, which included An-24, An-26 (possibly An-12) transport aircraft, Mi-8 (possibly) Mi-2 helicopters and a Tu-134 as the commander of the strategic direction or the military district's personal transport aircraft.
- 8th Aviation Division of Special Purpose,
Training schools of the VVS and PVO
A
In 1988, schools included:[56]
- 5th Central Course for Preparation and Improvement of Aviation Personnel, Kyrgyz SSR(HQ VVS)
- 796th Red Banner Center for Preparation of Officers for Fighter and Fighter-Bomber Aviation, Totskoye, Orenburg Oblast (HQ VVS)
- Armavir Higher Military Aviation School for Pilots PVO (Air Forces of the North Caucasus Military District)
- Volga-Ural Military District)
- Barnaul Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (HQ Barnaul, Altai Krai)(Air Forces of the Siberian Military District) - 44th (Panfilovo), 54th, 99th, 662nd Training Aviation Regiments in 1990.[57]
- Borisoglebsk Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Borisoglebsk, VVS NCMD)
- Chelyabinsk Higher Military Aviation School of Navigators
- Kacha Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Volgograd, HQ VVS)(ru:Качинское высшее военное авиационное училище лётчиков)
- Kansk Military Aviation School of Air Rifle-Radio Operators VVS (Kansk, VVS Siberian Military District)
- Krasnodar Higher United Flight-Technical School (Krasnodar, VVS NCMD; ru:Краснодарское высшее военное авиационное училище лётчиков)
- Orenburg Higher Military Aviation School for Pilots (Orenburg, VVS Volga-Ural Military District)
- Saratov Higher Military Aviation School for Pilots (Saratov, VVS Volga-Urals Military District; helicopter training)
- Stavropol Higher Military Aviation School for Pilots and Navigators PVO (Stavropol, VVS North Caucasus Military District)
- Syzran Higher Military Aviation School for Pilots
- Air Forces of the Moscow Military District)
- Ufa Higher Military Aviation School for Pilots (Ufa)
- Yeysk Higher Military Aviation School for Pilots (Yeysk, ru:Ейский высший военный авиационный институт)
- 17th Air Army (Kiev Military District, primarily a training force)
- Chernigov, VVS Kiev Military District)
- Kharkov Higher Military Aviation School for Pilots (Chuguyev, VVS Kiev Military District)
- Lugansk)
There is also a list of Soviet Air Force bases listing the various air bases of the force.
Commanders-in-Chief
Soviet Air Force inventory in 1990
- 175 strategic bombers[58]
- 160 Tupolev Tu-95
- 15 Tupolev Tu-160
- 390 medium bombers[58]
- 80 Tupolev Tu-16
- 120 Tupolev Tu-22
- 190 Tupolev Tu-22M
- 1,275 fighters
- 50 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21
- 595 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23
- 90 Sukhoi Su-27
- 540 Mikoyan MiG-29
- 2,510 attack aircraft[59]
- 535 Sukhoi Su-17
- 830 Sukhoi Su-24
- 340 Sukhoi Su-25
- 905 Mikoyan MiG-27
- 74 tankers
- 14 Ilyushin Il-78
- 40 Myasishchev M-4 'Molot'
- 20 Tupolev Tu-16
- 835 Electronic countermeasures(ECM) aircraft
- 50 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21
- 160 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25
- 135 Sukhoi Su-17
- 150 Sukhoi Su-24
- 170 Yakovlev Yak-28
- 120 Tupolev Tu-16
- 20 Tupolev Tu-22M
- 30 Ilyushin Il-22
- 577 transport aircraft
- 12 Antonov An-124
- 55 Antonov An-22
- 125 Antonov An-12
- 385 Ilyushin Il-76
- 2,935 civilian and other transport aircraft, usually Aeroflot aircraft which were easily converted
Evolution of the Roundel
The red five-pointed star without a border was used until 1943. | |
A red star with a black circular border inside the star was sometimes used in the 20s and 30s[60] | |
The red star with black border was used between 1941 and 1943, but was gradually phased out[60]. | |
In the early forties, many air forces around the world began to outline their roundels with a white border. The Soviet Union experimented with this as well.[60]. At the end of 1942, red stars began to be outlined almost everywhere with white paint; in 1943, a star with a white border became the standard identification mark of the Red Army Air Force[61]. | |
The red star with a yellow border was used extremely rarely during 1942-1945[60]. | |
A red star with convex shading and a white and red border is known as the "Kremlin Star." Used sparingly during 1940-1945[60]. | |
A red five-pointed star with a white and red border began to appear for the first time on Soviet aircraft in late 1943 and began to be widely used in subsequent years. Since 1945, such a star has been used almost everywhere. The identification mark was applied to the upper and lower surfaces of the wing, the vertical tail and the sides of the rear fuselage. In the fifties, this version of the identification mark was called the victory star. It was used by the USSR Air Force until its collapse, and by the Russian Air Force until 2010 and again since 2013. Currently, it is used by the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus. |
See also
- List of Russian aviators
- List of Russian aerospace engineers
- Soviet air shows
References
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- ^ Higham & Greenwood 1998, pp. 40–46.
- ^ warintheskies.com, Mike Colclough. "Soviet Air Force (VVS)". warintheskies.com. Archived from the original on 30 April 2017. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
- ^ a b Yeliseyev 2016, p. 472.
- ^ a b Palmer 2006, p. 220.
- ^ a b c Palmer 2006, p. 230.
- ^ Bailes 1976, p. 63.
- S2CID 157937639.
- ^ Fitzpatrick, Sheila (1999). Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 73.
- JSTOR 20058219.
- ^ Palmer, Icarus, east, p.38
- ^ a b c Palmer, Icarus, east, p.39
- ^ a b Bergman, p.149
- ^ Palmer, Icarus, east, 39
- ^ Bailes 1976, pp. 63–4.
- ^ Palmer 2006, p. 248.
- ^ Bailes 1976, p. 64.
- ^ Hardesty 1991, p. 55.
- ^ 2nd Air Army was created on 15 March 1937 in the Far East, and somewhat later 3rd Air Army was created in the North Caucasus Military District.
- ^ "Kharin". All Aces.
- ^ Bailes 1976, p. 73.
- ^ Bailes 1976, p. 69.
- ^ Bailes quotes an article from Red Air Force General Alksnis: "The constructor who creates and equips the plane must be oriented not toward phenomenally gifted flyers but towards rank-and-file pilots."
- ^ Bailes 1976, p. 55.
- ^ Whiting, Kenneth (1986). Soviet Air Power (revised ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. p. 125.
- ^ "Why did Stalin rise to power?". Socialist Worker Online. 1 August 2003. Archived from the original on 10 January 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ Hardesty 1991, p. 225.
- ^ Glantz, Colossus Reborn, 311.
- ^ ISBN 0-253-33557-4.
- ^ Ratley III, Maj. Lonnie O (March–April 1983). "A Lesson of History: The Luftwaffe and Barbarossa". Air University Review. Maxwell US Air Force Base: Air & Space Power. Archived from the original on 25 September 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
- ^ Michael Holm, 4th Guards Novgorodskiy Bomber Aviation Regiment Archived 18 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved August 23, 2011
- ISBN 0-85112-519-0
- ^ Hardesty 1991, p. 193.
- ^ "1st Latvian Night Aviation Regiment (legkobombardirovochny rezhitsky)" (in Russian). AllAces.ru. Archived from the original on 19 December 2010. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ISBN 0-85885-194-6.
- S2CID 159715267.
- ^ Hardesty 1991, p. 135.
- ^ Red Phoenix, p. 253 (Appendixes)
- ^ "Aviation History: Interview with World War II Soviet Ace Ivan Kozhedub". HistoryNet. 12 June 2006. Archived from the original on 1 September 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
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- ^ Carson 2018, pp. 157–163.
- ^ a b c Holm 2011.
- ^ Scott and Scott, The Armed Forces of the USSR, Third Edition, 1984, 165.
- ^ "The U.S.S.R.: Moscow's Military Machine". Time. 23 June 1980. Archived from the original on 6 November 2012. Retrieved 4 February 2011. notes that 97% of the officer corps was Russian, Ukrainian or Belarusian; Moynahan, Brian (1989). Claws of the Bear: The History of the Red Army from the Revolution to the Present. p. 337.; Wimbush, S. Enders; Alexiev, Alex (1982). The ethnic factor in the Soviet Armed Forces. RAND. p. vii.;
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- ^ Zaloga & Volstad 1987, p. 9.
- ^ Odom 1998, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Zickel & Keefe 1991.
- ^ Pre-history of MAKS – provides the complete information on Russian and Soviet air shows.
- ^ Steven J. Zaloga, "Armed Forces in Ukraine", Jane's Intelligence Review, March 1992, p.135.
- ^ a b Drozdov 2016.
- ^ Drozdov 2016, pp. 9–10.
- ^ "vvs". 20 November 2010. Archived from the original on 20 November 2010. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
- ^ Feskov et al. 2004, p. 146.
- ^ Christina F. Shelton, "The Soviet Military Education System for Commissioning and Training Officers"[dead link], a bibliographical description and a link to the document in PDF format, Appendix.
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- ^ "Russia: Air forces inventory". GlobalSecurity.org. 2010. Archived from the original on 25 May 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ a b c d e Erik Pilawskii, Soviet Air Force fighter colors 1941-1945, Classic Publications.
- ^ Схема построения звезд Template:Wayback.// Yandex.Photos
- Carson, Austin (31 December 2018). Secret Wars: Covert Conflict in International Politics. Princeton University Press. S2CID 239293400.
- Drozdov, Sergey (March 2016). "Была такая авиация... Эхо былой воздушной мощи" [There Once Was Such Aviation... Echo of Air Power Past]. Авиация и космонавтика [Aviation and Spaceflight].
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- Odom, William E (2000). The Collapse of the Soviet Military. Yale University Press.
- Palmer, Scott (2006). Dictatorship of the Air: Aviation Culture and the Fate of Modern Russia. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85957-3.
- Scott, Harriet Fast; Scott, William F. (1984). The Armed Forces of the USSR (3 ed.).
- Zaloga, Steve; Volstad, Ron (1987). Inside the Soviet army today.
- Zickel, Raymond E; Keefe, Eugene K (1991). Soviet Union: a country study. Washington, D.C.: Library Of Congress. Federal Research Division. For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.
Bibliography
- Andersson, Lennart. Soviet Aircraft and Aviation, 1917–1941. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1994. ISBN 1-55750-770-8.
- Bailes, Kendall (1976). "Technology and Legitimacy: Soviet Aviation and Stalinism in the 1930s". Technology and Culture. 17 (1): 55–81. JSTOR 3103253. (January 1976)
- Bergman, Jay (January 1998). "Valerii Chkalov: Soviet Pilot as New Soviet Man". Journal of Contemporary History 33 (1): 136.
- Boyd, Alexander. The Soviet Air Force Since 1918. New York: Stein and Day, 1977. With section of black-and-white photographic plates, charts. maps and diagrams, together with index. First published in The Soviet Air Force by Macdonald and Janes (UK) in 1977.
- Cooper, Tom (July–August 2002). "'Floggers" in Action: Early MiG-23s in Operational Service". ISSN 0143-5450.
- Guest, Carl-Fredrick. "Talkback". ISSN 0143-5450.
- Kotelnikov, V.; Kulikov, V. & Cony, C. (November 2001). "Les avions français en URSS, 1921–1941" [French Aircraft in the USSR, 1921–1941]. Avions: Toute l'Aéronautique et son histoire (in French) (104): 37–56. ISSN 1243-8650.
- Kotelnikov, V.; Kulikov, V. & Cony, C. (December 2001). "Les avions français en URSS, 1921–1941". Avions: Toute l'Aéronautique et son histoire (in French) (105): 50–56. ISSN 1243-8650.
- Loza, D. F. Attack of the Airacobras: Soviet Aces, American P-39s, and the Air War Against Germany. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2001. ISBN 0-7006-1140-1.
- Mason, Richard Anthony, and John William Ransom Taylor. Aircraft, strategy, and operations of the Soviet Air Force. London: Jane's, 1986.
- Palmer, Scott (2005). "Icarus, East: The Symbolic Contexts of Russian Flight". The Slavic and East European Journal 49 (1): 38.
- Pennington, Reina. (2002) Wings, Women, and War: Soviet Airwomen in World War II Combat. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2002. ISBN 0-7006-1145-2.
- Von Hardesty; Ilya Grinberg (2012). Red Phoenix Rising: The Soviet Air Force in World War II (2nd ed.). University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1828-6.
- Wagner, Ray (ed.), Fetzer, Leland, (trans.), The Soviet Air Force in World War II: The Official History, Wren Publishing, Melbourne, 1973 ISBN 0-85885-194-6
- Whiting, Kenneth (1986). Soviet Air Power (Revised Ed). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
- Yeliseyev, Sergey (2016). Организационное строительство отечественных военно-воздушных сил (1930–1931 гг.) (PDF) (in Russian). Moscow: Center of Military Strategic Research, Military Academy of the General Staff.
- "Советские Войска ПВО в последние годы Союза ССР. Часть 1" by A.G. Lenskiy and M.M. Tsybin, Saint Petersburg 2013, 164 pages
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External links
- Dictatorship of the Air Website and blog devoted to Soviet/Russian aviation history
- Globalsecurity.org on Russian air arms, useful for structure of Soviet Air Force