German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war

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(Redirected from
Soviet POWs in Nazi Germany
)
German atrocities on Soviet prisoners of war
Part of
forced labor
Deaths2.8[1] to 3.3 million[2]

During

German Army
, were starved and subjected to deadly conditions. Of nearly six million that were captured, around three million died during their imprisonment.

In June 1941, Germany and

Geneva Convention with prisoners of war of other nationalities, military planners decided to breach it with the Soviet prisoners. By the end of 1941, millions of Soviet soldiers had been captured, mostly in large-scale encirclement
operations during the German Army's rapid advance. Two-thirds of them died from starvation, exposure, and disease by early 1942—ranking as one of the highest death rates from mass atrocity in history.

auxiliaries to the German military or SS. Collaborators were essential to the German war effort as well as to the Holocaust
in Eastern Europe.

The deaths among Soviet prisoners of war were numerically exceeded only by the (civilian) Jews and has been called "one of the greatest crimes in military history".[3] Nevertheless, their fate is much less well studied. Although the Soviet Union announced the death penalty for surrender early in the war, most former prisoners were reintegrated into Soviet society. The majority of defectors and collaborators escaped prosecution. Former prisoners of war were not recognized as veterans and did not receive any reparations until 2015; they often faced discrimination due to the perception that they were traitors or deserters.

Background

German advances from June to August 1941

war aims included securing natural resources, including agricultural land to feed Germany, metals and mineral oil for German industry.[4] To increase the speed of conquest the Germans planned to feed their army by looting and to terrorize the local inhabitants with preventative killings.[9]

The vast majority of German military manpower and

Nazi racial theory and by experience during World War I, this hierarchy heavily influenced the treatment of the prisoners of war.[14] The Nazis believed that the Soviet Union's Slavic population was secretly controlled by an international Jewish conspiracy.[15] Thus, by killing communist functionaries and Soviet Jews, it was expected that resistance would quickly collapse.[16] Conversely, the Nazis anticipated that much of the Soviet population, especially in the western areas, would welcome the German invasion. In the long run, they hoped to exploit tensions between different Soviet nationalities.[17]

World War I led to both increased antisemitism based on the belief that German Jews had

Jewish ghettos), they proved less effective than expected because of flight and black market activity.[21][19][22] The Soviet prisoners of war were held under tighter control, and consequently suffered a higher death rate.[23][19]

Planning and legal basis

Prior to World War II, the treatment of prisoners of war had occupied a central role in the codification of the law of war, and detailed guidelines were laid down in the

Helmuth James Graf von Moltke was one of the few high-ranking officials who favored treating Soviet prisoners according to the law.[31]

Anti-Bolshevism, antisemitism, and racism are often cited as the main reasons behind the mass death of the prisoners, as well as the regime's conflicting demands for security, food, and labor.

invasion of France in 1940, 1.9 million prisoners of war were housed and fed, which historian Alex J. Kay cites as evidence that supply and logistics cannot explain the mass death of Soviet prisoners of war.[41]

Capture

Red Army soldiers surrendering, 1942
Soviet prisoners of war by year of capture

In 1941, three or four Soviet soldiers were captured for each who was killed in action; the ratio of prisoners was reduced later in the war, but remained higher than for the German side.[42] By mid-December 1941, 79 percent of prisoners (more than two million) had been captured in thirteen major cauldron battles.[43][44] Although fewer Soviet soldiers were captured than expected,[45] historian Mark Edele argues that opposition to the Soviet government is one factor that led to the mass surrenders in 1941,[46] but emphasizes that military factors—such as poor leadership, lack of arms and ammunition, and being completely overwhelmed by the German advance—were more important.[47] Behavior of Soviet soldiers ranged from fighting to the last bullet to making a conscious choice to defect and deliberately going to the German side.[48] Edele estimates that at least hundreds of thousands, and possibly more than a million, Soviet soldiers defected over the course of the war,[49] far exceeding defections from other belligerents.[50]

Especially in 1941, the German Army often

OKH) order, prisoners were often taken under such circumstances.[57][54] Thousands of Red Army soldiers were executed on the spot as "partisans" or "irregulars".[58][54][59] Others evaded capture and returned to their families.[60]

The number of prisoners recorded as captured by Germany in 1941—3.35 million—exceeds the Red Army's reported missing by as much as one million. This discrepancy can be partly explained by the Red Army's inability to keep track of losses during a chaotic withdrawal. Additionally,[61] as many as one in eight of the people registered as Soviet prisoners of war had never been members of the Red Army. Some had been mobilized but never reached their units; others belonged to the NKVD, People's Militia, were from uniformed civilian services such as railway corps and fortification workers, or were otherwise civilians.[56] The number of Soviet soldiers captured fell dramatically after the Battle of Moscow in late 1941.[62]

Processing

Volodymyr-Volynskyi
(June 1941)

Infantry divisions took prisoners during encirclement battles but front line troops were typically in charge for only a short time before taking them to a collection point at division or army level.[63] From there, the prisoners were sent to a transit camp (Dulag [de])[64][65] Many transit camps were shut down from 1942 with the prisoners sent directly from the collection point to a Stalag.[65] Some frontline units would strip prisoners of their winter clothing as cold temperatures set in late in 1941.[66] Although wounded and sick Red Army soldiers sometimes received medical care, most often they did not.[67][68]

Before May 1942, when the Commissar Order was rescinded,[69] an estimated 4,000 to 10,000 commissars were shot; such killings are documented for more than 80 percent of front-line German divisions fighting on the Eastern Front.[70] Although the order was mostly accepted, behavior varied from refusal to implement it to extending to other groups of Soviet captives.[71] These killings did not have the intended effect of decreasing Soviet resistance, and came to be perceived as counterproductive.[72] Contradictory orders were issued for the execution of female combatants in the Soviet army, who defied German gender expectations; these orders were not always followed.[73][74]

Wehrmacht internment system

An improvised camp for Soviet prisoners of war (August 1942)

By the end of 1941, 81 camps had been established on occupied Soviet territory.

Army Group Rear Area Commands were responsible for the transit camps.[78][79] Due to the low priority attached to prisoners of war, each camp commandant had a great deal of autonomy, limited by the military and economic situation. Although a few tried to ameliorate the conditions, most did not.[80][81][82] At the end of 1944 all prisoner of war camps were placed under SS chief Heinrich Himmler's authority.[3] Although Wehrmacht command authorities from the OKW on down also distributed orders to refrain from excessive violence against prisoners of war, historian David Harrisville argues that these orders had little effect in practice and that their main effect was to bolster a positive self-image in Wehrmacht soldiers.[83]

Death marches

Soviet POWs transported in an open wagon train (September 1941)

The use of railcars for transport was often forbidden to prevent the spread of disease.[84] Prisoners were often forced to march hundreds of kilometers on foot, during which they were not provided adequate food or water.[85][39] Guards frequently shot anyone who fell behind in large numbers.[85][39][84] Sometimes Soviet prisoners were able to escape due to inadequate guarding.[86] An estimated 20 percent or more died over the winter during transport in open cattle wagons.[84][39][58] Additional death marches were ordered as the Red Army regained territory, typically on foot except in western areas.[87] A figure of 200,000 to 250,000 deaths in transit is provided in Russian estimates.[58][88]

Housing conditions

Soviet prisoners of war captured near Białystok, June or July 1941

The prisoners were herded into open, fenced-off areas with no buildings or

Bobruisk, where an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 Red Army soldiers died.[94] Shooting prisoners was encouraged.[89]

The number of guards was relatively low, contributing to violence against prisoners. The Germans recruited prisoners—mainly Ukrainians,

watchtowers.[96] Despite draconian penalties, organized resistance groups formed at some camps and some attempted mass escapes.[97] Tens of thousands of Soviet prisoners of war attempted to escape, and about half were recaptured after successful escapes,[98] while around 10,000 reached Switzerland.[99] If they did not commit crimes while escaped, the prisoners were usually returned to the Wehrmacht prisoner of war camps. Otherwise, they were usually turned over the Gestapo and imprisoned or executed at a nearby concentration camp.[98]

Hunger and mass deaths

Army Group Center—300 to 600 prisoners died each day in late 1941 and early 1942.[100]

Food for prisoners was extracted from the occupied Soviet Union after the needs of the occupiers were met.

calories.[104] The prisoners not working—all but 1 million of the 2.3 million held at the time—would die, as Wagner acknowledged in a meeting in November 1941.[104][105] Although prisoners had not received much food from the beginning, death rates skyrocketed during the fall, following increased numbers of prisoners, the cumulative effect of starvation, disease epidemics, and falling temperatures.[108][62] Hundreds died daily at each camp, too many to bury.[62][36][109] The German policy shifted to prioritizing feeding the prisoners at the expense of the Soviet civilian population, but in practice conditions did not significantly improve until June 1942[110] due to improved logistics and fewer prisoners to feed.[111] The mass deaths were repeated on a smaller scale in the winter of 1942/1943.[112][12]

Starving prisoners attempted to eat leaves, grass, bark, and worms.[113] Some Soviet prisoners suffered so much from hunger that they made written requests to their Wehrmacht guards asking to be shot.[114] Cannibalism was reported in several camps, despite capital punishment for this offense.[114] Soviet civilians who tried to provide food were often shot.[115][80] In many camps, those who were in better shape were separated from the prisoners deemed not to have a chance of survival.[100] Finding employment could be beneficial for securing additional food and better conditions, although workers often received insufficient food.[116]

Release

On 7 August 1941, the OKW issued an order

Hiwis while others changed their status from prisoner to guard.[85][123][118] As the war progressed, release for agricultural work decreased while military recruitment increased.[119]

Selective killings

silencers after local residents complained about gunfire[124]

The selective killings of prisoners held by the Wehrmacht were enabled by its close cooperation with the SS and through Soviet informers[125][126][127] and often Wehrmacht soldiers conducted the executions as well.[2] These killings targeted mainly commissars and Jews,[128][126] but sometimes communists, intellectuals,[126][129] Red Army officers,[130] and in 1941 Asian-appearing prisoners[131]—around 80 percent of Turkic soldiers were killed by early 1942.[132] Wehrmacht counterintelligence identified many individuals as Jews[133] by medical examinations, denunciation by fellow prisoners, or possessing a stereotypically Jewish appearance.[134]

Beginning in August 1941, additional screening carried out by the Security Police and the SD in the occupied Soviet Union led to the killing of another 38,000 prisoners.[128] With the cooperation of the Wehrmacht, Einsatzgruppen units visited the prisoner of war camps to carry out mass executions.[135][126] Around 50,000 Jewish Red Army soldiers were killed[136][137] but around 5 to 25 percent were able to escape detection.[134] Soviet Muslims were sometimes killed after being mistaken for Jews.[126] From 1942, systematic killing increasingly targeted wounded and sick prisoners instead.[138][139] Those unable to work were often shot in mass executions or simply left to die,[120][140] and sometimes mass executions were conducted without a clear rationale.[141] Invalid soldiers were in particular danger when the front approached.[125]

For the prisoner-of-war camps in Germany, screening was carried out by the

non-commissioned officers were killed at Mauthausen.[144] Including shooting of wounded soldiers, it is likely the total death toll from direct executions reached hundreds of thousands.[2]

Auxiliaries in German service

Further information:
Hilfswillige
Two Trawniki men helping to clear the Warsaw Ghetto, 1943
German-occupied France
, October 1943

Hitler opposed recruiting Soviet collaborators into military and police functions, because he blamed non-German recruits for the defeat in World War I.

anti-partisan warfare.[146][118]

A minority of captured prisoners of war

extermination camps that killed millions of Jews in German-occupied Poland, and carried out anti-partisan operations.[155] Collaborators were essential to the German war effort as well as to the Holocaust in Eastern Europe.[156]

If recaptured by the Red Army, these collaborators were often shot.

D-Day in mid-1944, these soldiers formed 10 percent of the occupying forces of France.[159] Some of them aided the resistance, and in 1945 parts of the Georgian Legion rebelled.[159] Soviet prisoners of war were forced to work in construction and pioneer forces for the army, air force, and navy. After April 1943, prisoners of war were allowed into anti-aircraft units where they could be as much as 30 percent of the strength.[160][161] By the end of the war, 1.4 million out of 2.4 million surviving prisoners of war were serving in some kind of auxiliary military unit.[162]

Forced labor

See also:
forced labor under German rule during World War II

Forced labor engaged in by Soviet prisoners of war often violated the

1929 Geneva Convention. For example, the convention forbids work in war industries.[163]

In the Soviet Union

Soviet POWs at work in Minsk, Belarus (July 1941)

Without the labor of Soviet prisoners of war for military infrastructure in the

Donets basin, authorized by Hitler in July 1942. Around 48,000 were assigned to this task but most never started their labor assignments and the remainder either perished from the conditions or had escaped by March 1943.[167]

Transfer to Nazi concentration camps

Naked Soviet prisoners of war in Mauthausen concentration camp, to which at least 15,000 were deported[142]

In September 1941, Himmler began advocating the transfer of Soviet prisoners of war to

Auschwitz II-Birkenau, as part of Himmler's colonization plans.[170][171]

Despite the intention to exploit their labor, most of the 25,000

gas vans (at Sachsenhausen) and Zyklon B in gas chambers at Auschwitz.[177][178] So many died at Auschwitz that the crematoria were overloaded; the SS established the practice of tattooing prisoner numbers in November 1941 to keep track of which prisoners had died.[179][171] Contrary to Himmler's assumption, more Soviet prisoners of war were not forthcoming to replace those who died. The number of new captives declined and Hitler decided at the end of October 1941 to deploy the remaining Soviet prisoners of war in the German war economy.[180][181]

Besides those sent for labor in late 1941,

Ravensbrück; others at Auschwitz, Majdanek, and Mauthausen.[183] Those imprisoned in concentration camps for an infraction were discharged from prisoner of war status in violation of the Geneva Convention.[184] Officers were overrepresented[185] among the more than 100,000 men and an unknown number of women that were eventually transferred to Nazi concentration camps.[186][182][142]

Deportation elsewhere

Soviet prisoner of war barracks in Saltdal, Norway, pictured after liberation

The first 200,000 Soviet prisoners of war were deported to Germany in July and August 1941 to fill labor demand in agriculture and industry.[187][188] Those who were deported to Germany faced conditions not necessarily any better than existed in the occupied Soviet Union.[189] Hitler halted the transports in mid-August, but changed his mind on 31 October;[190] along with the prisoners of war, a larger number of Soviet civilians were to be sent.[187][191] The camps in Germany had an internal police force composed of non-Russian prisoners who were often violent towards Russians; Soviet Germans often staffed the camp administration and served as interpreters. Both received more rations and preferential treatment.[161] Guarding the prisoners was the responsibility of Wehrmacht Landesschützen [de] units composed of German men too elderly or infirm to serve at the front.[192]

Many Nazi leaders wanted to avoid contact between Germans and prisoners of war, limiting the work assignments for prisoners.[193] Labor assignments differed based on the local economy. Many worked for private employers in agriculture and industry, and others were rented out to local authorities for such tasks as building roads and canals, quarrying, and cutting peat.[194] Employers paid RM0.54 per day per man for agricultural work, or RM0.80 for other work; many also provided prisoners with extra food to achieve productivity. The workers received RM0.20 cents per day in currency that could be spent at the camp (Lagergeld [de]).[195] By early 1942, to combat the reality that many prisoners were too malnourished to work, the leadership increased rations to surviving prisoners.[194] However, not all prisoners benefited from higher rations and they remained vulnerable to malnutrition and disease.[196] The number of prisoners working in Germany continued to increase, from 455,000 in September 1942 to 652,000 in May 1944.[197] By the end of the war, at least 1.3 million Soviet prisoners of war had been deported to Germany or its annexed territories,[198] Of these, 400,000 did not survive and most of these deaths occurred in the winter of 1941/1942.[198] Others were deported to other locations, including Norway and the Channel Islands, where many died.[199]

Public perception

Wehrmacht soldiers, inspects a prison camp in Minsk
, August 1941.

Security Service reports many Germans worried about personally suffering from food shortages and wanted the Soviet prisoners to be killed or given minimal food for this reason.[202]

As early as July 1941, atrocities against Soviet prisoners of war were integrated into

Soviet propaganda. Information about the Commissar Order, described as mandating the killing either of all officers or prisoners captured, was disseminated to Red Army soldiers.[203] Accurate information about the treatment of Soviet prisoners of war reached Red Army soldiers by various means and was an effective deterrent against defection.[204]

End of the war

On 8 April 1945, more than 200 Soviet prisoners of war were forced to dig their own graves and murdered in Hanover-Wuelfel.[205]
Liberated Soviet prisoners at Hemer[206]

Around 500,000 had already been freed by Allied armies by February 1945,

International Military Tribunal.[24]

Since the beginning of the war, the Soviet policy—intended to discourage defection—advertised that any soldier who had fallen into enemy hands, or simply encircled without capture, was guilty of

deserters to be summarily executed and their families arrested.[214][215] Sometimes Red Army soldiers were told that the families of defectors would be shot; although thousands were arrested, it is unknown if any such executions were carried out.[216] As the war continued, Soviet leaders realized that most Soviet citizens had not voluntarily collaborated.[217] In November 1944, the State Defense Committee decided that freed prisoners of war would be returned to the army while those who served in German military units or police would be handed over to the NKVD.[218] At the Yalta Conference, the Western Allies agreed to repatriate Soviet citizens regardless of their wishes.[219] The Soviet regime set up many filtration camps, hospitals, and recuperation centers for freed prisoners of war, where most stayed for an average of one or two months.[220] These filtration camps were intended to separate out the minority of voluntary collaborators, but were not very effective.[217]

The majority of defectors and collaborators escaped prosecution.

Death sentences were rare.[224] On 7 July 1945, a Supreme Soviet decree formally pardoned all former prisoners of war who had not collaborated.[223] Another amnesty in 1955 released all remaining collaborators except those sentenced for torture or murder.[221]

Former prisoners of war were not recognized as veterans and denied veterans' benefits; they often faced discrimination due to the perception that they were traitors or deserters.[224][223] In 1995, Russia equalized the status of former prisoners of war with that of other veterans.[225] They were excluded from the Foundation Remembrance, Responsibility and Future fund[226] and did not receive any formal reparations until 2015, when the German government paid a symbolic amount to the few thousand still alive at that time.[227]

Death toll

See also: World War II casualties of the Soviet Union
Mass grave of Soviet soldiers interred at the transit camp in Dęblin Fortress, German-occupied Poland

Around 3 million Soviet POWs died in Nazi custody, out of 5.7 million. Estimates range from that provided by

German-occupied Norway.[232][2] It is disputed whether officers were more likely than enlisted men to survive. Although they were sometimes targeted for murder, it is possible that they were more likely to survive in some circumstances due to wielding power over other prisoners.[128][185] Most deaths occurred to prisoners in the custody of the Wehrmacht.[233][3]

Deaths among the prisoners of war from the Soviet Union vastly exceeded other nationalities;

Italian military internees at 6 to 7 percent.[234] Polish prisoners of war were considered racially similar to Soviet prisoners, but the conditions they were held in and death rate they suffered "differed in the extreme".[235] In comparison, more than 28 percent of Soviet prisoners of war died in Finnish captivity[236] and around 15 to 30 percent of Axis prisoners died in Soviet custody, despite the Soviet government's attempt to reduce the death rate.[237][238] Throughout the war, Soviet prisoners of war faced a far higher mortality than that of Polish or Soviet civilian forced laborers, which was under 10 percent.[173]

The death rate of 300,000 to 500,000 each month from October 1941 to January 1942 ranks as one of the highest death rates from mass atrocity in history, equalling the peak of killings of Jews between July and October 1942.[239] The Soviet prisoners of war were the second-largest group of victims of Nazi criminality after European Jews.[240][241]

Legacy and historiography

Monument to Soviet prisoners of war in Salaspils, now Latvia

Hartmann refers to the treatment of Soviet prisoners as "one of the greatest crimes in military history".[3] As of 2016, thousands of books had been published about the Holocaust, but there was not a single book in English about the fate of Soviet prisoners of war.[240] Few prisoner accounts were published, perpetrators were not tried for their crimes, and little scholarly research has been attempted.[242][93] Streit's landmark Keine Kameraden was published in 1978;[226] after 1990 Soviet archives became available.[225] Prisoners who remained in the occupied Soviet Union usually were not registered under their names, so their individual fates will never be known.[112]

Although the treatment of prisoners of war was remembered by Soviet citizens as one of the worst aspects of the occupation,

Russian nationalist historiography defended the former prisoners, minimizing incidents of defection and collaboration, and instead emphasizing resistance.[245]

The fate of Soviet prisoners of war was mostly ignored in West Germany and East Germany, where resistance activities were more of a focus.[243] After the war, some Germans made apologetic claims regarding the causes of mass death in 1941. Some blamed the deaths on the failure of diplomacy between the Soviet Union and Germany after Operation Barbarossa, or on the soldiers allegedly being weakened at the time of their capture because of prior starvation by the Soviet government.[246] The crimes against prisoners of war were among those exposed to the German public in the Wehrmacht exhibition around 2000, which challenged the myth of the clean Wehrmacht that was still prevalent at that point.[247][248] Some memorials and markers have been established at cemeteries and former camps, either by state or private initiatives.[249] For the 80th anniversary of World War II, several German historical and memorial organizations organized a traveling exhibition on the event.[250]

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Works cited

Further reading
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