Spacecraft propulsion
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
|
Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to accelerate spacecraft and artificial satellites. In-space propulsion exclusively deals with propulsion systems used in the vacuum of space and should not be confused with space launch or atmospheric entry.
Several methods of pragmatic spacecraft propulsion have been developed, each having its own drawbacks and advantages. Most satellites have simple reliable chemical thrusters (often
Hypothetical in-space propulsion technologies describe the propulsion technologies that could meet future space science and exploration needs. These propulsion technologies are intended to provide effective exploration of the Solar System and will permit mission designers to plan missions to "fly anytime, anywhere, and complete a host of science objectives at the destinations" and with greater reliability and safety. With a wide range of possible missions and candidate propulsion technologies, the question of which technologies are "best" for future missions is a difficult one; expert opinion now holds that a portfolio of propulsion technologies should be developed to provide optimum solutions for a diverse set of missions and destinations.[1][2][3][verification needed]
Purpose and function
This section needs additional citations for verification. (July 2023) |
In-space propulsion begins where the
When in space, the purpose of a
When launching a spacecraft from Earth, a propulsion method must overcome a higher
- prograde/retrograde (i.e. acceleration in the tangential/opposite in tangential direction), which increases/decreases altitude of orbit; and
- perpendicular to orbital plane, which changes orbital inclination.[citation needed]
The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration, and the rate of change of momentum is called force.[citation needed] To reach a given velocity, one can apply a small acceleration over a long period of time, or one can apply a large acceleration over a short time; similarly, one can achieve a given impulse with a large force over a short time or a small force over a long time.[citation needed] This means that for maneuvering in space, a propulsion method that produces tiny accelerations but runs for a long time can produce the same impulse as a propulsion method that produces large accelerations for a short time.[citation needed] When launching from a planet, tiny accelerations cannot overcome the planet's gravitational pull and so cannot be used.[citation needed]
Earth's surface is situated fairly deep in a
The
by taking advantage of things like magnetic fields or light pressure to change the spacecraft's momentum.In order for a rocket to work, it needs two things: reaction mass and energy. The impulse provided by launching a particle of reaction mass having mass m at velocity v is mv. But this particle has kinetic energy mv²/2, which must come from somewhere. In a conventional
When discussing the efficiency of a propulsion system, designers often focus on the effective use of the reaction mass, which must be carried along with the rocket and is irretrievably consumed when used.[citation needed] One measure of the amount of impulse that can be obtained from a fixed amount of reaction mass is the specific impulse, the impulse per unit weight-on-Earth (typically designated by ), with units of seconds.[
A rocket with a high exhaust velocity can achieve the same impulse with less reaction mass; however, the energy required for that impulse is proportional to the exhaust velocity, so that more mass-efficient engines require much more energy, and are typically less energy-efficient.[citation needed] This is a problem if the engine is to provide a large amount of thrust: to generate a large amount of impulse per second, it must use a large amount of energy per second.[citation needed] As such, high-mass-efficient engine designs require enormous amounts of energy per second to produce high thrusts, but generally also tend to provide lower thrust (due to the unavailability of high amounts of energy).[citation needed]
In-space propulsion represents technologies that can significantly improve a number of critical aspects of the mission. Space exploration is about getting somewhere safely (mission enabling), getting there quickly (reduced transit times), getting a lot of mass there (increased payload mass), and getting there cheaply (lower cost). The simple act of "getting" there requires the employment of an in-space propulsion system, and the other metrics are modifiers to this fundamental action.[4][3]
Development of technologies will result in technical solutions that improve thrust levels, Isp, power,
Defining technologies
Furthermore, the term "mission pull" defines a technology or a performance characteristic necessary to meet a planned NASA mission requirement. Any other relationship between a technology and a mission (an alternate propulsion system, for example) is categorized as "technology push." Also, a space demonstration refers to the spaceflight of a scaled version of a particular technology or of a critical technology subsystem. On the other hand, a space validation would serve as a qualification flight for future mission implementation. A successful validation flight would not require any additional space testing of a particular technology before it can be adopted for a science or exploration mission.[4]
Operating domains
Spacecraft operate in many areas of space. These include orbital maneuvering, interplanetary travel, and interstellar travel.
Orbital
Artificial satellites are first
Interplanetary
For
Some spacecraft propulsion methods such as solar sails provide very low but inexhaustible thrust;[17] an interplanetary vehicle using one of these methods would follow a rather different trajectory, either constantly thrusting against its direction of motion in order to decrease its distance from the Sun, or constantly thrusting along its direction of motion to increase its distance from the Sun.[citation needed] The concept has been successfully tested by the Japanese IKAROS solar sail spacecraft.[citation needed]
Interstellar
No spacecraft capable of short duration (compared to human lifetime) interstellar travel has yet been built, but many hypothetical designs have been discussed. Because interstellar distances are very great, a tremendous velocity is needed to get a spacecraft to its destination in a reasonable amount of time. Acquiring such a velocity on launch and getting rid of it on arrival remains a formidable challenge for spacecraft designers.[18]
Propulsion technology
The technology areas are divided into four basic groups: (1) Chemical propulsion, (2) Electric propulsion, (3) Advanced propulsion technologies, and (4) Supporting technologies; based on the physics of the propulsion system and how it derives thrust as well as its technical maturity. Additionally, there may be credible meritorious in-space propulsion concepts not foreseen or reviewed at the time of publication, and which may be shown to be beneficial to future mission applications.[19]
Chemical propulsion
A large fraction of the
Green chemical propulsion
The dominant form of chemical propulsion for satellites has historically been hydrazine, however, this fuel is highly toxic and at risk of being banned across Europe.[20] Non-toxic 'green' alternatives are now being developed to replace hydrazine. Nitrous oxide-based alternatives are garnering a lot of traction and government support,[21][22] with development being led by commercial companies Dawn Aerospace, Impulse Space,[23] and Launcher.[24] The first nitrous oxide-based system ever flown in space was by D-Orbit onboard their ION Satellite Carrier (space tug) in 2021, using six Dawn Aerospace B20 thrusters, launched upon a SpaceX crafted Falcon 9 rocket.[25][26]
Reaction engines
Reaction engines produce
Rocket engines
Rocket engines provide essentially the highest specific powers and high specific thrusts of any engine used for spacecraft propulsion.[
Ion propulsion rockets can heat a plasma or charged gas inside a
Electric propulsion
Rather than relying on high temperature and fluid dynamics to accelerate the reaction mass to high speeds, there are a variety of methods that use electrostatic or electromagnetic forces to accelerate the reaction mass directly, where the reaction mass is usually a stream of ions.[citation needed] Such an engine typically uses electric power, first to ionize atoms, and then to create a voltage gradient to accelerate the ions to high exhaust velocities.[citation needed] For these drives, at the highest exhaust speeds, energetic efficiency and thrust are all inversely proportional to exhaust velocity.[citation needed] Their very high exhaust velocity means they require huge amounts of energy and thus with practical power sources provide low thrust, but use hardly any fuel.[citation needed]
The idea of electric propulsion dates back to 1906, when
One institution focused on developing primary propulsion technologies, including electric, aimed at benefitting near and mid-term science missions by reducing cost, mass, and/or travel times is the
For some missions, particularly reasonably close to the Sun, solar energy may be sufficient, and has very often been used, but for others further out or at higher power, nuclear energy is necessary; engines drawing their power from a nuclear source are called nuclear electric rockets.[citation needed]
With any current source of electrical power, chemical, nuclear or solar, the maximum amount of power that can be generated limits the amount of thrust that can be produced to a small value.[citation needed] Power generation adds significant mass to the spacecraft, and ultimately the weight of the power source limits the performance of the vehicle.[citation needed]
Current nuclear power generators are approximately half the weight of solar panels per watt of energy supplied, at terrestrial distances from the Sun.[citation needed] Chemical power generators are not used due to the far lower total available energy.[citation needed] Beamed power to the spacecraft is considered to have potential.[according to whom?][citation needed]
Electromagnetic methods include:[citation needed]
- ion thrusters, which accelerate ions first and later neutralize the ion beam with an electron stream emitted from a cathode called a neutralizer;[citation needed]
- electrostatic ion thruster
- gridded ion thruster
- field-emission electric propulsion
- MagBeam thrusters
- Hall-effect thruster
- colloid thruster
- electrothermal thrusters, wherein electromagnetic fields are used to generate a plasma to increase the heat of the bulk propellant, the thermal energy imparted to the propellant gas is then converted into kinetic energy by a nozzle of either physical material construction or by magnetic means;[citation needed]
- electromagnetic thrusters, wherein ions are accelerated either by the Lorentz Force or by the effect of electromagnetic fields where the electric field is not in the direction of the acceleration;[citation needed]
- mass drivers designed for propulsion.[citation needed]
Without internal reaction mass
EM wave-based propulsion
This section possibly contains original research. (January 2017) |
The
Tether propulsion
There are several different space drives that need little or no reaction mass to function. A
Solar and magnetic sails
A satellite or other space vehicle is subject to the
The concept of
Japan launched a solar sail-powered spacecraft, IKAROS, in May 2010, which successfully demonstrated propulsion and guidance (and is still active as of this date).[when?][citation needed] As a further proof of the solar sail concept, NanoSail-D became the first such powered satellite to orbit Earth.[42] As of August 2017, NASA confirmed the Sunjammer solar sail project was concluded in 2014 with lessons learned for future space sail projects.[43] The U.K. Cubesail programme will be the first mission to demonstrate solar sailing in low Earth orbit, and the first mission to demonstrate full three-axis attitude control of a solar sail.[44]
Other propulsion types
The concept of a
Beam-powered propulsion is another method of propulsion without reaction mass, and includes sails pushed by laser, microwave, or particle beams.[citation needed]
Advanced propulsion technology
Advanced, and in some cases theoretical, propulsion technologies may use chemical or nonchemical physics to produce thrust, but are generally considered to be of lower technical maturity with challenges that have not been overcome.[46] For both human and robotic exploration, traversing the solar system is a struggle against time and distance. The most distant planets are 4.5–6 billion kilometers from the Sun and to reach them in any reasonable time requires much more capable propulsion systems than conventional chemical rockets. Rapid inner solar system missions with flexible launch dates are difficult, requiring propulsion systems that are beyond today's current state of the art. The logistics, and therefore the total system mass required to support sustained human exploration beyond Earth to destinations such as the Moon, Mars or Near Earth Objects, are daunting unless more efficient in-space propulsion technologies are developed and fielded.[47][48]
A variety of hypothetical propulsion techniques have been considered that require a deeper understanding of the properties of space, particularly
- Black hole starship
- Differential sail
- Gravitational shielding
- Field propulsion
- Diametric drive
- Disjunction drive
- Pitch drive
- Bias drive
- Photon rocket
- Quantum vacuum thruster
- Nano electrokinetic thruster
- Reactionless drive
- Abraham—Minkowski drive
- Alcubierre drive
- Dean drive
- EmDrive
- Heim theory
- Woodward effect
A NASA assessment of its Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program divides such proposals into those that are non-viable for propulsion purposes, those that are of uncertain potential, and those that are not impossible according to current theories.[49]
Table of methods
This section needs additional citations for verification. (July 2023) |
Below is a summary of some of the more popular, proven technologies, followed by increasingly speculative methods. Four numbers are shown. The first is the effective exhaust velocity: the equivalent speed that the propellant leaves the vehicle. This is not necessarily the most important characteristic of the propulsion method; thrust and power consumption and other factors can be. However,
- if the delta-v is much more than the exhaust velocity, then exorbitant amounts of fuel are necessary (see the section on calculations, above),[according to whom?] and
- if it is much more than the delta-v, then, proportionally more energy is needed; if the power is limited, as with solar energy, this means that the journey takes a proportionally longer time.[according to whom?]
The second and third are the typical amounts of thrust and the typical burn times of the method; outside a gravitational potential small amounts of thrust applied over a long period will give the same effect as large amounts of thrust over a short period, if the object is not significantly influenced by gravity.[citation needed] The fourth is the maximum delta-v the technique can give without staging. For rocket-like propulsion systems this is a function of mass fraction and exhaust velocity; mass fraction for rocket-like systems is usually limited by propulsion system weight and tankage weight.[citation needed] For a system to achieve this limit, the payload may need to be a negligible percentage of the vehicle, and so the practical limit on some systems can be much lower.[citation needed]
Method | Effective exhaust velocity (km/s) |
Thrust (N) | Firing duration |
Maximum delta-v (km/s) |
Technology readiness level |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Solid-fuel rocket |
<2.5 | <107 | Minutes | 7 | 9: Flight proven |
Hybrid rocket |
<4 | Minutes | >3 | 9: Flight proven | |
Monopropellant rocket | 1 – 3[50] | 0.1 – 400[50] | Milliseconds – minutes | 3 | 9: Flight proven |
Liquid-fuel rocket |
<4.4 | <107 | Minutes | 9 | 9: Flight proven |
Electrostatic ion thruster |
15 – 210[51] | Months – years | >100 | 9: Flight proven | |
Hall-effect thruster (HET) | up to 50[52] | Months – years | >100 | 9: Flight proven[53] | |
Resistojet rocket | 2 – 6 | 10−2 – 10 | Minutes | ? | 8: Flight qualified[54] |
Arcjet rocket | 4 – 16 | 10−2 – 10 | Minutes | ? | 8: Flight qualified[citation needed] |
Field-emission electric propulsion (FEEP) |
100[55] – 130 | 10−6 – 10−3[55] | Months – years | ? | 8: Flight qualified[55] |
Pulsed plasma thruster (PPT) | 20 | 0.1 | 80 – 400 days | ? | 7: Prototype demonstrated in space |
Dual-mode propulsion rocket | 1 – 4.7 | 0.1 – 107 | Milliseconds – minutes | 3 – 9 | 7: Prototype demonstrated in space |
Solar sails | 299,792.458, Speed of light | 9.08/km2 at 1 AU 908/km2 at 0.1 AU 10−10/km2 at 4 ly |
Indefinite | >40 |
|
Tripropellant rocket | 2.5 – 5.3[citation needed] | 0.1 – 107[citation needed] | Minutes | 9 | 6: Prototype demonstrated on ground[57] |
Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster (MPD) |
20 – 100 | 100 | Weeks | ? | 6: Model, 1 kW demonstrated in space[58] |
Nuclear–thermal rocket | 9[59] | 107[59] | Minutes[59] | >20 | 6: Prototype demonstrated on ground |
Propulsive mass drivers | 0 – 30 | 104 – 108 | Months | ? | 6: Model, 32 MJ demonstrated on ground |
Tether propulsion |
— | 1 – 1012 | Minutes | 7 | 6: Model, 31.7 km demonstrated in space[60] |
Air-augmented rocket | 5 – 6 | 0.1 – 107 | Seconds – minutes | >7? | 6: Prototype demonstrated on ground[61][62] |
Liquid-air-cycle engine | 4.5 | 103 – 107 | Seconds – minutes | ? | 6: Prototype demonstrated on ground |
Pulsed-inductive thruster (PIT) | 10 – 80[63] | 20 | Months | ? | 5: Component validated in vacuum[63] |
Variable-specific-impulse magnetoplasma rocket (VASIMR) |
10 – 300[citation needed] | 40 – 1,200[citation needed] | Days – months | >100 | 5: Component, 200 kW validated in vacuum |
Magnetic-field oscillating amplified thruster (MOA) |
10 – 390[64] | 0.1 – 1 | Days – months | >100 | 5: Component validated in vacuum |
Solar–thermal rocket | 7 – 12 | 1 – 100 | Weeks | >20 | 4: Component validated in lab[65] |
Radioisotope rocket/Steam thruster | 7 – 8[citation needed] | 1.3 – 1.5 | Months | ? | 4: Component validated in lab |
Nuclear–electric rocket | As electric propulsion method used | 4: Component, 400 kW validated in lab
| |||
Orion Project (near-term nuclear pulse propulsion) |
20 – 100 | 109 – 1012 | Days | 30 – 60 | 3: Validated, 900 kg proof-of-concept[66][67] |
Space elevator | — | — | Indefinite | >12 | 3: Validated proof-of-concept |
Reaction Engines SABRE[68] |
30/4.5 | 0.1 – 107 | Minutes | 9.4 | 3: Validated proof-of-concept |
Electric sails | 145 – 750, solar wind | ? | Indefinite | >40 | 3: Validated proof-of-concept |
Magsail in Solar wind | — | 644[69][a] | Indefinite | 250-750 | 3: Validated proof-of-concept |
Magnetoplasma sail in Solar wind[71] | 278 | 700 | Months - Years | 250-750 | 4: Component validated in lab[72] |
Magsail in Interstellar medium[70] | — | 88,000 initially | Decades | 15,000 | 3: Validated proof-of-concept |
Beam-powered/laser | As propulsion method powered by beam | 3: Validated, 71 m proof-of-concept | |||
Launch loop/orbital ring | — | 104 | Minutes | 11 – 30 | 2: Technology concept formulated
|
Nuclear pulse propulsion (Project Daedalus' drive) |
20 – 1,000 | 109 – 1012 | Years | 15,000 | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Gas-core reactor rocket | 10 – 20 | 103 – 106 | ? | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Nuclear salt-water rocket | 100 | 103 – 107 | Half-hour | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Fission sail | ? | ? | ? | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Fission-fragment rocket | 15,000 | ? | ? | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Nuclear–photonic rocket/Photon rocket | 299,792.458, Speed of light | 10−5 – 1 | Years – decades | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Fusion rocket | 100 – 1,000[citation needed] | ? | ? | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion |
200 – 4,000 | ? | Days – weeks | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Antimatter rocket | 10,000 – 100,000[citation needed] | ? | ? | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Bussard ramjet | 2.2 – 20,000 | ? | Indefinite | 30,000 | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Method | Effective exhaust velocity (km/s) |
Thrust (N) | Firing duration |
Maximum delta-v (km/s) |
Technology readiness level |
Table Notes
Testing
Spacecraft propulsion systems are often first statically tested on Earth's surface, within the atmosphere but many systems require a vacuum chamber to test fully. Rockets are usually tested at a
Planetary and atmospheric propulsion
Launch-assist mechanisms
There have been many ideas proposed for launch-assist mechanisms that have the potential of drastically reducing the cost of getting into orbit. Proposed non-rocket spacelaunch launch-assist mechanisms include:
- Skyhook (requires reusable suborbital launch vehicle, not feasible using presently available materials)
- Space elevator (tether from Earth's surface to geostationary orbit, cannot be built with existing materials)
- Launch loop (a very fast enclosed rotating loop about 80 km tall)
- Space fountain (a very tall building held up by a stream of masses fired from its base)
- Orbital ring (a ring around Earth with spokes hanging down off bearings)
- Electromagnetic catapult (railgun, coilgun) (an electric gun)
- Rocket sled launch
- Space gun (Project HARP, ram accelerator) (a chemically powered gun)
- Beam-powered propulsion rockets and jets powered from the ground via a beam
- High-altitude platformsto assist initial stage
Air-breathing engines
This section needs additional citations for verification. (July 2023) |
Studies generally show that conventional air-breathing engines, such as
On the other hand, very lightweight or very high speed engines have been proposed that take advantage of the air during ascent:
- SABRE – a lightweight hydrogen fuelled turbojet with precooler[68]
- ATREX – a lightweight hydrogen fuelled turbojet with precooler[73]
- Liquid air cycle engine – a hydrogen fuelled jet engine that liquifies the air before burning it in a rocket engine
- Scramjet – jet engines that use supersonic combustion
- Shcramjet – similar to a scramjet engine, however it takes advantage of shockwaves produced from the aircraft in the combustion chamber to assist in increasing overall efficiency.
Normal rocket launch vehicles fly almost vertically before rolling over at an altitude of some tens of kilometers before burning sideways for orbit; this initial vertical climb wastes propellant but is optimal as it greatly reduces airdrag. Airbreathing engines burn propellant much more efficiently and this would permit a far flatter launch trajectory, the vehicles would typically fly approximately tangentially to Earth's surface until leaving the atmosphere then perform a rocket burn to bridge the final delta-v to orbital velocity.
For spacecraft already in very low-orbit,
Planetary arrival and landing
When a vehicle is to enter orbit around its destination planet, or when it is to land, it must adjust its velocity. This can be done using all the methods listed above (provided they can generate a high enough thrust), but there are a few methods that can take advantage of planetary atmospheres and/or surfaces.
- Aerobraking allows a spacecraft to reduce the high point of an elliptical orbit by repeated brushes with the atmosphere at the low point of the orbit. This can save a considerable amount of fuel because it takes much less delta-V to enter an elliptical orbit compared to a low circular orbit. Because the braking is done over the course of many orbits, heating is comparatively minor, and a heat shield is not required. This has been done on several Mars missions such as Mars Global Surveyor, 2001 Mars Odyssey, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, and at least one Venus mission, Magellan.
- upon lunar return were aerocapture maneuvers, because they turned a hyperbolic orbit into an elliptical orbit. On these missions, because there was no attempt to raise the perigee after the aerocapture, the resulting orbit still intersected the atmosphere, and re-entry occurred at the next perigee.
- A ballute is an inflatable drag device.
- heat shield.
- Airbags can soften the final landing.
- Lithobraking, or stopping by impacting the surface, is usually done by accident. However, it may be done deliberately with the probe expected to survive (see, for example, Deep Impact (spacecraft)), in which case very sturdy probes are required.
In fiction
In science fiction, space ships use various means to travel, some of them scientifically plausible (like solar sails or ramjets), others, mostly or entirely fictitious (like
: 142Further reading
- Heister, Stephen D.; Anderson, William E.; Pourpoint, Timothée L.; Cassady, R. Joseph (2019). Rocket Propulsion. Cambridge Aerospace Series. Vol. 47. Cambridge England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-39506-9. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
- Sutton, George P.; Biblarz, Oscar (2016). Rocket Propulsion Elements (9th ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-75365-1. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
- Taploo, A; Lin, Li; Keidar, Michael (1 September 2021). "Analysis of Ionization in Air-Breathing Plasma Thruster". Physics of Plasmas. 28 (9): 093505. ]
- Taploo A, Soni V, Solomon H, McCraw M, Lin L, Spinelli J, Shepard S, Solares S, Keidar M (12 October 2023). "Characterization of a circular arc electron source for a self-neutralizing air-breathing plasma thruster". Journal of Electric Propulsion. 2 (21). . Retrieved 29 February 2024.
See also
- Alcubierre drive
- Anti-gravity
- Artificial gravity
- Atmospheric entry
- Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program
- Flight dynamics (spacecraft)
- Index of aerospace engineering articles
- Interplanetary Transport Network
- Interplanetary travel
- List of aerospace engineering topics
- Lists of rockets
- Magnetic sail
- Orbital maneuver
- Orbital mechanics
- Plasma propulsion engine
- Pulse detonation engine
- Rocket
- Rocket engine nozzles
- Satellite
- Solar sail
- Spaceflight
- Space launch
- Space travel using constant acceleration
- Specific impulse
- Tsiolkovsky rocket equation
References
- ^ Meyer, Mike (April 2012). "In-space propulsion systems roadmap" (PDF). nasa.gov. p. 9. Retrieved Feb 1, 2021.
- ^ a b Mason, Lee S. "A practical approach to starting fission surface power development." proceedings of International Congress on Advances in Nuclear Power Plants (ICAPP'06), American Nuclear Society, La Grange Park, IL, 2006b, paper. Vol. 6297. 2006.
- ^ a b c d e Leone, Dan (Space Technology and Innovation) (May 20, 2013). "NASA Banking on Solar Electric Propulsion's Slow but Steady Push". Space News. SpaceNews, Inc. Archived from the original on July 20, 2013. Retrieved February 1, 2021.
- ^ a b c d e Meyer 2012, p. 5.
- ^ Zobel, Edward A. (2006). "Summary of Introductory Momentum Equations". Zona Land. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
- ^ "Xenon Ion Propulsion System (XIPS) Thrusters" (PDF). L3 Technologies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2018. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
- ^ "Chemical Bipropellant thruster family" (PDF). Ariane Group. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
- ^ a b Benson, Tom. "Guided Tours: Beginner's Guide to Rockets". NASA. Archived from the original on 2013-08-14. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
- ISBN 978-3-540-69202-7.
- ^ Tsiolkovsky, K. "Reactive Flying Machines" (PDF).
- ^ Hess, M.; Martin, K. K.; Rachul, L. J. (February 7, 2002). "Thrusters Precisely Guide EO-1 Satellite in Space First". NASA. Archived from the original on 2007-12-06. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
- ^ Phillips, Tony (May 30, 2000). "Solar S'Mores". NASA. Archived from the original on June 19, 2000. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
- ^ Olsen, Carrie (September 21, 1995). "Hohmann Transfer & Plane Changes". NASA. Archived from the original on 2007-07-15. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
- ^ Staff (April 24, 2007). "Interplanetary Cruise". 2001 Mars Odyssey. NASA. Archived from the original on August 2, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
- ^ Doody, Dave (February 7, 2002). "Chapter 4. Interplanetary Trajectories". Basics of Space Flight. NASA JPL. Archived from the original on July 17, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
- ^ Hoffman, S. (August 20–22, 1984). "A comparison of aerobraking and aerocapture vehicles for interplanetary missions". AIAA and AAS, Astrodynamics Conference. Seattle, Washington: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. pp. 25 p. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-31.
- ^ Anonymous (2007). "Basic Facts on Cosmos 1 and Solar Sailing". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on July 3, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
- ^ Rahls, Chuck (December 7, 2005). "Interstellar Spaceflight: Is It Possible?". Physorg.com. Retrieved 2007-07-31.
- ^ Meyer 2012, p. 10.
- ^ "Hydrazine ban could cost Europe's space industry billions". SpaceNews. 2017-10-25. Retrieved 2022-08-19.
- ^ Urban, Viktoria (2022-07-15). "Dawn Aerospace granted €1.4 million by EU for green propulsion technology". SpaceWatch.Global. Retrieved 2022-08-19.
- ^ "International research projects | Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment". www.mbie.govt.nz. Retrieved 2022-08-19.
- ^ Berger, Eric (2022-07-19). "Two companies join SpaceX in the race to Mars, with a launch possible in 2024". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2022-08-19.
- ^ "Launcher to develop orbital transfer vehicle". SpaceNews. 2021-06-15. Retrieved 2022-08-19.
- ^ "Dawn Aerospace validates B20 Thrusters in space – Bits&Chips". Retrieved 2022-08-19.
- ^ "Dawn B20 Thrusters Proven In Space". Dawn Aerospace. Retrieved 2022-08-19.
- ^ This law of motion is most commonly paraphrased as: "For every action force there is an equal, but opposite, reaction force."[citation needed]
- ^ Tomsik, Thomas M. "Recent advances and applications in cryogenic propellant densification technology Archived 2014-11-29 at the Wayback Machine." NASA TM 209941 (2000).
- ^ Oleson, S., and J. Sankovic. "Advanced Hall electric propulsion for future in-space transportation." Spacecraft Propulsion. Vol. 465. 2000.
- ^ Dunning, John W., Scott Benson, and Steven Oleson. "NASA's electric propulsion program." 27th International Electric Propulsion Conference, Pasadena, CA, IEPC-01-002. 2001.
- doi:10.2514/1.9245. Archived from the originalon 2019-04-28. Retrieved 2016-10-18.
- .
- ^ Solar Electric Propulsion (SEP). Glenn Research Center. NASA. 2019
- ^ Ion propulsion system research Archived 2006-09-01 at the Wayback Machine. Glenn Research Center. NASA. 2013
- ^ Drachlis, Dave (October 24, 2002). "NASA calls on industry, academia for in-space propulsion innovations". NASA. Archived from the original on December 6, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
- ISBN 978-0-216-92252-5.
- ISSN 0731-5090.
- ISSN 2524-5252.
- ISSN 0022-4650.
- ISSN 0148-0227.
- ISBN 978-1-62410-096-3.
- ^ "Solar Sail Demonstrator". 19 September 2016.
- ^ "Solar Sail Demonstrator". 19 September 2016.
- ^ "Space Vehicle Control". University of Surrey. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2015.
- .
- ^ Meyer 2012, p. 20.
- ^ Meyer 2012, p. 6.
- ^
Huntsberger, Terry; Rodriguez, Guillermo; Schenker, Paul S. (2000). "Robotics Challenges for Robotic and Human Mars Exploration". Robotics 2000: 340–346. ISBN 978-0-7844-0476-8.
- ^ Millis, Marc (June 3–5, 2005). "Assessing Potential Propulsion Breakthroughs" (PDF). New Trends in Astrodynamics and Applications II. Princeton, NJ.
- ^ a b "Chemical monopropellant thruster family" (PDF). Ariane Group. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
- ^ "ESA Portal – ESA and ANU make space propulsion breakthrough". European Union. 18 January 2006.
- ^ "Overview of Hall thrusters". Archived from the original on 2020-05-23. Retrieved 2020-05-29.
- ^ Hall-effect thrusters have been used on Russian and antecedant Soviet bloc satellites for decades.[original research?][citation needed]
- ^ A Xenon Resistojet Propulsion System for Microsatellites (Surrey Space Centre, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey)
- ^ a b c "Alta - Space Propulsion, Systems and Services - Field Emission Electric Propulsion". Archived from the original on 2011-07-07.
- ^ "今日の IKAROS(8/29) – Daily Report – Aug 29, 2013" (in Japanese). Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). 29 August 2013. Retrieved 8 June 2014.
- ^ RD-701 Archived 2010-02-10 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Google Translate".
- ^ a b c RD-0410 Archived 2009-04-08 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Young Engineers' Satellite 2 Archived 2003-02-10 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Gnom Archived 2010-01-02 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ NASA GTX Archived November 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b "The PIT MkV pulsed inductive thruster" (PDF).
- ^ "Thermal velocities in the plasma of a MOA Device, M.Hettmer, Int J Aeronautics Aerospace Res. 2023;10(1):297-300" (PDF).
- ^ "Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne Wins $2.2 Million Contract Option for Solar Thermal Propulsion Rocket Engine". Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne). June 25, 2008.
- ^ "Operation Plumbbob". July 2003. Retrieved 2006-07-31.
- ^ Brownlee, Robert R. (June 2002). "Learning to Contain Underground Nuclear Explosions". Retrieved 2006-07-31.
- ^ a b Anonymous (2006). "The Sabre Engine". Reaction Engines Ltd. Archived from the original on 2007-02-22. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
- ^ Andrews, Dana; Zubrin, Robert (1990). "MAGNETIC SAILS AND INTERSTELLAR TRAVEL". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 43: 265–272 – via JBIS.
- ^ a b Freeland, R.M. (2015). "Mathematics of Magsail". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 68: 306–323 – via bis-space.com.
- ISBN 978-1-62410-222-6.
- S2CID 55922338, retrieved 2022-06-13
- .
- ^ "World-first firing of air-breathing electric thruster". Space Engineering & Technology. European Space Agency. 5 March 2018. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
- ^ Conceptual design of an air-breathing electric propulsion system Archived 2017-04-04 at the Wayback Machine. (PDF). 30th International Symposium on Space Technology and Science. 34th International Electric Propulsion Conference and 6th Nano-satellite Symposium. Hyogo-Kobe, Japan July 4, 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-517-53174-7.
- ISBN 978-0-19-988552-7.
External links
- NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics project
- Different Rockets Archived 2010-05-29 at the Wayback Machine
- Earth-to-Orbit Transportation Bibliography Archived 2016-06-15 at the Wayback Machine
- Spaceflight Propulsion – a detailed survey by Greg Goebel, in the public domain
- Johns Hopkins University, Chemical Propulsion Information Analysis Center
- Tool for Liquid Rocket Engine Thermodynamic Analysis
- Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's How Things Fly website
- Fullerton, Richard K. "Advanced EVA Roadmaps and Requirements." Proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Environmental Systems. 2001.
- Atomic Rocket – Engines: A site listing and detailing real, theoretical and fantasy space engines.