Spain–United Kingdom relations

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Spanish–British relations
Map indicating locations of Spain and United Kingdom

Spain
United Kingdom
Diplomatic mission
Spanish Embassy LondonBritish Embassy Madrid
Envoy
Ambassador Carlos BastarrecheAmbassador Hugh Elliott

Spain–United Kingdom relations, also called Spanish–British relations or Anglo-Spanish relations, are the bilateral international relations between Spain and United Kingdom. Both countries are members of the Council of Europe and NATO. Spain is a European Union member and the United Kingdom is a former European Union member.

History

The history of Spanish–British relations is complicated by the political and religious heritages of the two countries. Neither Great Britain nor Spain have a unique constitutional ancestor; Britain was originally created by a union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland (and later joined by Ireland), whilst the Kingdom of Spain was initially created by a union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon (and later joined by Navarre). They have also been complicated by the fact that Britain and Spain were both imperial powers, often after the same land, an occurrence which is being played out to this day with the disputed ownership and status of Gibraltar.

Anglo-Portuguese Alliance

João I of Portugal entertaining John of Gaunt
in the early years of the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance.

For centuries, the role of England, and subsequently Britain, in Iberia was coloured by the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. Relations with Portugal always have been closer than those with Spain, and Spain and Britain have gone to war twice[when?] over Portugal's independence.

In 1384, at the height of the

King João I to thwart a French-backed Castilian invasion. These forces saw action at the decisive battle of Aljubarrota
, and proved to be vital in securing the continued independence of Portugal from its larger neighbours.

The alliance submerged into crisis when Portugal supported

João IV of Portugal ). England's support for Portugal during their Restoration War further soured Anglo-Spanish relations. England nevertheless meditated the Treaty of Lisbon of 1668 between Portugal and Spain, which saw the independence of the former and the recognition of Pedro II
as King.

Arms of Mary I and Philip of Spain as English monarchs.

In following centuries, Portugal and Britain were closely allied in their politics and wars against Spain, which closely collaborated with France after the

invaded in 1762
with a large army. British troops numbering near 10,000 came to aid the Portuguese. In spite of three attempts the Spanish along with their French ally were heavily defeated losing in total upwards of 25,000 men.

No further action between the powers took place until 1797 with the

Napoleonic Wars however saw Spain and Portugal along with Britain being allies in their fight against Napoleon after he tried occupying Spain in the Peninsular War
.

Age of Exploration

During the 16th century (1500–1599) there were complex political, commercial, and cultural connections that linked the large powerful Spanish Empire under the Habsburgs with a small but ambitious England.[1] The Habsburgs sought allies against France. Both countries were constantly in turmoil or allied in a love-hate relationship. The marriage of the Catholic sovereigns –Philip II and Mary Tudor– in 1554 was the high point in a century of negotiations, wars and treaties. Philip and Mary got along personally, but there were no children and their retainers displayed mistrust and the marriage lacked in ceremonies and entertainments. The death of Queen Mary brought the protestant Queen Elizabeth to the throne, and the two friendly nations became hostile enemies.[2]

Italian War of 1542. Philip II of Spain married Mary I of England, making Philip king of Spain and of England and Ireland. Mary's early death without issue prevented a closer personal union
of the countries.

Gold and diplomacy

The "Treasure Crisis" of 1568 was Elizabeth's seizure of gold from Spanish ships in English ports in November 1568. Chased by privateers in the English channel, five small Spanish ships carrying gold and silver worth 400,000 florins (£85,000) sought shelter in English harbours at Plymouth and Southampton. The English government headed by William Cecil gave permission. The money was bound for the Spanish Netherlands as payment for Spanish soldiers who were fighting the rebels there. Queen Elizabeth discovered that the gold was not owned by Spain, but was still owned by Italian bankers. She decided to seize it, and treated as a loan from the Italian bankers to England. The bankers agreed to her terms and she eventually repaid the bankers. Spain reacted furiously, and seized English property in the Netherlands and Spain. England reacted by seizing Spanish ships and properties in England. Spain reacted by imposing an embargo preventing all English imports into the Netherlands. The bitter diplomatic standoff lasted for four years.[3] However neither side wanted war, so in 1573 at the Convention of Nymegen England promised to end support for raids on Spanish shipping by English privateers such as Francis Drake and John Hawkins. It was finalised in the Convention of Bristol in August 1574 in which both sides paid for what they had seized. Trade resumed between England and Spain and relations improved.[4]

War and Armada

In 1585, relations between England and Spain worsened after

Mary, Queen of Scots was beheaded whom the latter had supported. King Philip II of Spain ordered an invasion of England and set about building what would become the Spanish Armada at the naval shipyards of Cádiz. Elizabeth once again authorized Francis Drake to disrupt Spanish shipping - he sacked Santo Domingo and Cartagena, which became the opening salvo of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). Further disruption then took place at Cadiz in 1587; Drake singed the King of Spain’s beard and over 100 Spanish ships were destroyed, delaying the launch of the Armada by a year. The English also captured 2,900 butts of Sherry
(vino de Jerez) which later fuelled the popularisation of the drink in England.

After almost two years of preparation, the Spanish Armada was ready to sail. Its 154 ships carried 19,000 soldiers (17,000 Spanish, 2,000 Portuguese) and 8,000 sailors, as well as 180 clerics who were to help reestablish Catholicism in England. The plan was for the Spanish Armada to sail up the English Channel in a crescent formation to clear a path for the entry of army troops stationed in the Netherlands. The first attempt to sail in May 1588 ended when the Spanish Armada ran into storms and the fleet lost five ships.

The Spanish Armada and English ships in August 1588 (unknown, 16th-century).

Storms forced the fleet to stay put at A Coruña until July. Finally, they reached Lizard Point on July 19. The English fleet was at Plymouth and followed the Armada up the Channel. The first encounter was off Plymouth, July 21, the second off Portland Bill, July 23, the third off the Isle of Wight, July 24. The Armada was not seriously damaged and its formation remained intact. On July 27, the Armada had reached the Strait of Dover and anchored off Calais. The next day, the English set several of their ships on fire and sent them out to the English Channel, hoping they would destroy the ships of the Spanish fleet. The ships of the Armada cut their cables thus losing their anchors and scattered throughout the Channel breaking the crescent formation the fleet needed to maintain until troops arrived from the Netherlands. The English attacked the vulnerable Spanish ships at this conflict, known as the Battle of Gravelines on July 29. Lord Howard of Effingham's English warships fired at will, sinking one ship. Philip II's invasion was foiled, and the Armada was forced to push on into the North Sea. The voyage home proved costly, stormy waters claiming some 60 ships and thousands of lives.

England sent out its own armada the following year, in the hope that the Portuguese would rise up against the Spanish crown and to inflict further losses on the anchored Spanish fleet. The venture however failed and endured heavy losses.

A new front opened in the war between Spain and England, the coast of northern France. In 1590, the Spanish occupied

one such raid in 1595; Mousehole, Newlyn and Penzance were sacked and burned.[5] This event marked the last time England was ever invaded by hostile forces. The following year the English launched a major raid against Cadiz
. The attack saw the city's capture, sacking and a two week occupation. The economic losses caused by this were numerous: the city was burned and the raid contributed to Spain's declaration of bankruptcy the following year.

In retaliation the Spanish attempted an invasion of the British isles; the 2nd Spanish Armada set sail in October 1596 but this hit a storm off Cape Finesterre and sailed back to port heavily ravaged. A year later the English led by the Earl of Essex a year later set out the Azores to intercept a Spanish treasure fleet but encountered very little. At the same time another Spanish attempt took place hoping to intercept the returning English fleet as well as invade the West of the British isles but this failed due to storms and bad luck.

The final Spanish armada took place in 1601 and although depleted from storms, managed to make landfall in Southern Ireland. Their aim was to assist the Irish rebel earls led by

rebelling against the English Crown. The English however besieged the 4,000 Spaniards at Kinsale
. Cut off by the English Navy the Spanish surrendered the following year which ended further operations.

Peace between England and Spain was finally

James I, son of Mary, Queen of Scots, succeeded the childless Elizabeth to the throne.[6] Both England and Spain ran into serious debt as a result of the war. Spain would declare bankruptcy again five years after the peace but would be able to consolidate and strengthen its Empire in the New World. The English too would prosper - they began to colonize North America, and the East India Company which had been formed later in the war soon began to breach the Spanish and Portuguese trade monopoly.[7]

Seventeenth century

See also: Anglo-Spanish War (1625–1630) and Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660)

In April 1655, the English unsuccessfully attacked Santo Domingo.[8][9][10] The expedition nevertheless was able to mount a successful invasion of Jamaica the following month. The Spanish tried twice to recapture the island but both times (1657 and 1658) they were defeated. The island was transformed into an English colony but was still a threat from the Spanish.

In 1657, England formed an alliance with France, merging the Anglo–Spanish war with the larger

Restoration of King Charles II in 1660, no treaty had been signed. England then gave full support to the Portuguese in 1662 who were fighting for their independence. In addition tensions in the Caribbean centred on England's hold of Jamaica - privateers, notably Henry Morgan
led devastating raids on the Spanish Main.

The conflict officially ended with two peace treaties which were signed at Madrid in 1667 and 1670 both of which were favourable to England - for one the Spanish finally ceded Jamaica.[11]

War of the Spanish Succession

The

Habsburg candidate onto the Spanish throne instead of the Duc of Anjou, a member of the House of Bourbon. The later had been left as successor to the crown in the testament of Charles II, who had died without issue. As aftermath of this war, that featured both an international dimension and a domestic civil conflict, the Bourbons held the Crown while Spain lost Menorca and Gibraltar to the British.[12]

Eighteenth-century imperial warfare

A Spanish and an English edition of the Treaty of Utrecht

The

Treaty of Utrecht that ended the War of Spanish succession was followed within two years by the death of the French King Louis XIV. This fundamentally changed the European system. Louis XV was in his minority when he ascended to the French throne, and in response, Philip V attempted to make Spain the dominant continental power. This began with the War of the Quadruple Alliance
(1718–1720), in which Great Britain and France were allies against Spain when Spain attempted to reclaim territories in Italy.

Where continental Europe had been the focus of the conflict between Great Britain and France during the War of Spanish Succession, conflicts between Great Britain and Spain were largely focused in the Caribbean, and in North America. The British had been relatively late to settle on the continent, but had built up a number of successful colonies with rapidly expanding populations. They began to challenge the Spanish monopoly on trade in

attempted to retake Gibraltar hoping that the Holy Roman Empire would join in their side. However the siege was a costly failure and British diplomacy enabled Austrian non aggression. With Austria out Spain was forced to sign the treaty of Seville
.

Spain and Britain for the next 15 years were at peace with Britain even supporting Spain during the War of the Polish Succession.[13] Nevertheless there were still tensions between the two countries. Things came to a head when news of an illegal trader, Captain Robert Jenkins, had his ear cut off as a punishment in 1731 which later caused outrage in Britain when he testified at a hearing in the house of commons seven years later. This ultimately among other things led to the War of Jenkins' Ear, an element of the wider War of the Austrian Succession.

Unsuccessful 1741 British attack on Cartagena de Indias

The British started the war by

St. Simons Island culminated with the Battle of Bloody Marsh
and the withdrawal of the Spanish.

Seven Years' War

The

Havana respectively were seized by the British. After the treaty of Paris in 1763 both Havana and Manila were returned in exchange for Spain ceding Florida
to Great Britain.

American Revolutionary War

Hoping to gain revenge on the British for their defeat during the Seven Years' War, France offered support to rebel American colonists seeking independence from Britain during the

American War of Independence and in 1778 entered the war on their side. They then urged Spain to do the same, hoping the combined force would be strong enough to overcome the British Royal Navy
and be able to invade England. In 1779 Spain joined the war, hoping to take advantage of a substantially weakened Britain.

A well-organised force under

Spanish Louisiana launched a number of attacks in British colonies in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico, which they took with relative ease against weak British garrisons, and were planning an expedition against Jamaica
when peace was declared in 1783.

In Europe, Britain's traditional allies Austria and Portugal remained neutral, leaving them isolated. Because of this there was virtually no military activity in continental Europe aside from the Great Siege of Gibraltar. Despite a prolonged besiegement, the British garrison there was able to hold out until relieved and The Rock remained in British hands following the Treaty of Paris.

Unlike their French allies (for whom the war proved largely to be a disaster, financially and militarily) the Spanish made a number of territorial gains, recovering Florida and Menorca. Despite this there were ominous signs for the Spanish, as the combined French and Spanish fleets had been unable to gain mastery of the seas and had also failed in two of their key objectives, regaining Gibraltar and an invasion of Great Britain.

Nootka crisis with Britain, 1789–1795

Main article: Nootka Crisis

The Nootka Crisis was a crisis with Britain starting in 1789 at Nootka Sound, an unsettled area at the time that is now part of British Columbia, Canada. Spain seized small British commercial ships engaged in the fur trade on an area on the Pacific Coast. Spain claimed ownership based on a papal decree of 1493 that Spain said gave it control of the entire Pacific Ocean. Britain rejected the Spanish claims and used its greatly superior naval power to threaten war and win the dispute.[18] Spain, a rapidly fading military power, was unable to depend upon its longtime ally France, which was torn by internal revolution. The dispute was settled by negotiations in 1792–94 known as the Nootka Convention which became friendly when Spain switched sides in 1792 and became an ally of Britain against France. Spain surrendered to Britain many of its trade and territorial claims in the Pacific, ending a two-hundred-year monopoly on Asian-Pacific trade. The outcome was a victory for mercantile interests of Britain[19] and opened the way to British expansion in the Pacific,[20][21] whilst in turn it was an international humiliation for Spain.[22]

French Revolution

The aftermath of the 1789

Manuel de Godoy
, made peace in 1795 while Britain continued to fight on.

In 1796 Spain signed the Treaty of San Ildefonso and aligned with the French against the British.

Napoleonic Wars

The 1809 Battle of Talavera by William Heath

At the start of the

Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Puerto Rico, and the Canary Islands
.

Napoleon moved into Spain in 1807, hoping that French control of Iberia would facilitate the war with Britain. He tried to force Portugal to accept the

war rape) in the form of war spoils during the sacks of Ciudad Rodrigo (1812), Badajoz (1812) and San Sebastián (1813).[24]

Atlantic slave trade

In the 19th century, the British Empire was at the height of its power, and Britain sought to end the Atlantic slave trade, which Britain and the United States separately had outlawed in 1807.

At the 1817 London Conference, the British pressured the major European colonial powers, including Spain, to agree to abolish the slave trade. Under the agreement, Spain agreed to end the slave trade north of the Equator immediately, and south of the Equator by 1820. British naval vessels were given the right to search suspected slavers. Despite overwhelming British naval supremacy, the trade continued. In 1835, the Anglo-Spanish agreement on the slave trade was renewed, and the rights of British captains to board and search Spanish ships were expanded. Mixed British-Spanish commissions were established at Freetown and Havana. Vessels carrying specified 'equipment articles' (including extra mess gear, lumber, foodstuffs) were declared prima facie to be slavers. However, after the First Carlist War, the leverage afforded by British political support for the Spanish government declined, and the British abolitionist movement focused on the United States and Brazil. Slavery was abolished in Spain's main Caribbean colony, Cuba, in 1888, over fifty years after the practice was outlawed across the British Empire.

Carlist Wars

Don Carlos, the first Carlist Pretender.

During the

Don Carlos, her uncle. Fearing a resurgent theocratic Spain, the possible re-emergence of long-silent pretenders to the British throne, a new Spanish monarch that might refuse to accept the independence of Spain's lost Latin American colonies, and domestic secessionism (particularly amongst Irish Catholics), Britain steadfastly supported Isabella who was a liberal instead of the Carlist pretenders who were reactionaries.[citation needed
]

In 1835, Britain instigated the foundation of the

Queen Isabella's reign. The Duke of Wellington advocated nonintervention, in the expectation that with limited material support from its allies the Spanish government could win the First Carlist War (1833–40). In Spain, British Commissioner Edward Granville Eliot stressed London's desire for peace without British or French involvement. He facilitated a convention to humanize the treatment of prisoners of war. Wellington's policy helped stabilize Portugal and improved British relations with other powers.[25]

During the

British Legion, led by George de Lacy Evans, saw action in Navarre
and contributed greatly to the suppression of the revolt.

1865-1876

Alfonso XIII (left) with George V (right), then Prince of Wales, in 1905

During 1865-1876 Britain sought to calm the Peninsula. The issues were many: Spain tried to unite with Portugal; there was internal strife in Spain over the throne; and France and Germany argued over the Spanish succession in 1870. Furthermore there was a "War-in-Sight" crisis of 1875, problems in Morocco, religious intolerance, and the usual issues of trade, which British merchants dominated. London opposed the union of Spain and Portugal because it wanted to keep Portugal as a loyal ally with its strategic location in the Atlantic. Britain held Gibraltar but it was not yet a fully satisfactory base. The unsuccessful attempts after September 1868 to find a successor to Queen Isabella who would satisfy the French, Germans, Portuguese, Austrians, Italians, and Spanish kept British diplomats busy with peacemaking moves in many capitals. With British help, Spain slowly ceded control of Morocco to France. Spanish anti-Protestant intolerance troubled British merchants and bankers, so Spain softened religious intolerance. For the most part British diplomats were able to defuse tensions and defend British interests in the Peninsula.[26]

Twentieth century

Chamberlain being punched by Kruger as portrayed in the Spanish press (by Xaudaró).

After the Spanish disaster of 1898 in the Spanish–American War, the relations deteriorated: the British press included Spain within the group of decaying nations the Lord Salisbury hinted in a May 1898 speech. Conversely, the Spanish press took any chance to criticise the British atrocities committed during the Second Boer War, and to rejoice at any British setback in the conflict.[27]

Spain remained neutral in the

First World War. It was unprepared to fight and was torn between factions favouring France and those favouring Germany.[28]

Spanish Civil War

During the

better source needed][32] The Labour Party opposed Franco and after it came to power in 1945 relations were frosty. After Franco died in 1975 and the democratisation movement gained power, relations grew friendly, and trade and tourism grew rapidly.[33]

Many historians argue that the British policy of non-intervention was a product of the Establishment's anti-Communism. Scott Ramsay (2019) instead argues that Britain demonstrated a “benevolent neutrality”. It was simply hedging its bets, avoiding favouring one side or the other. The goal was that in a future European war Britain would enjoy the ‘benevolent neutrality’ of whichever side won in Spain.[34]

Royal marriages

Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom in the shield of Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg as Queen of Spain
.

Armed conflict

Wars between the British and the Spanish include:

Present day

In the present day, Spain and the United Kingdom maintain civil relations, both being members of NATO, and the OECD. They share a number of regulations due to their previously shared membership of the European Union, several of which remain in force in the UK after its exit from the bloc.

Gibraltar

The Rock of Gibraltar.
Main article:
Disputed status of Gibraltar

The status of

Treaty of Utrecht
.

In two referendums, held in September 1967 and November 2002, the people of Gibraltar rejected any proposal for the transfer of sovereignty to Spain. The 2002 referendum was on a proposal for joint sovereignty which at one stage was supported by the UK Government.
Considering the Gibraltarians

Gibraltarian people the legitimate inhabitants of the territory, and therefore entitled to the self-determination right in compliance of the same United Nations' resolutions. Gibraltar's 2006 Constitution Order endorsed and approved by Her Majesty's Government
states:

Her Majesty’s Government will never enter into arrangements under which the people of Gibraltar would pass under the sovereignty of another state against their freely and democratically expressed wishes.[36]

In 2008, the UN 4th Committee rejected the claim that a dispute over sovereignty affected self-determination, which was a basic human right.[37]

From May 2000 to May 2001 HMS Tireless moored in Gibraltar, for repairs on the cooling system of its nuclear reactor. The presence of the nuclear vessel in Gibraltar caused outrage among environmentalists and strained relations between Spain and the UK.[38][39][40]

In February 2002, the UK formally apologised when a unit of

La Linea de la Concepción's beach instead of Gibraltar's where the planned military training was to be conducted.[41][42]

In 2004, Spain and the United Kingdom established the

British Overseas Territory
.

Waters around Gibraltar, declared by the United Kingdom as

Guardia Civil Maritime Service vessel into the three-mile waters around Gibraltar, escalating to the intervention of Royal Navy Gibraltar Squadron and a diplomatic protest by the Government of the United Kingdom.[48][49] Further incidents occurred in November 2009, and in February 2019.[50][51]

Gibraltarians celebrate the Gibraltar National Day in 2013

In July 2009

sovereignty issue was not dealt with, given its controversial nature, and the three-way talks focused on other subjects such as cooperation on the environment, maritime matters, and ways of further facilitating the Moroccan community in Gibraltar to transit Spain en route to and from Gibraltar and Morocco.[52][53]

In December 2009, a

Guardia Civil launch entered the Gibraltar harbour. Three armed officers landed in Gibraltar illegally and, along with a fourth, were arrested by the Royal Gibraltar Police.[54] Many such incidents occur, with a more recent event being the arresting of Gibraltarian fisherman inside the waters of Gibraltar, confiscation of equipment and transfer of the individuals to Spain. This was strongly condemned by the UK Government,[55] and the UK's method of quiet diplomacy with Spain was criticised by a local newspaper, which called for more 'open' diplomacy.[56]

Between January and November 2012, around 200 incursions by Spanish vessels into Gibraltar waters were recorded, as opposed to 23 in 2011 and 67 in 2010. In December 2012, one day after an incursion by a Spanish warship, a Royal Navy Type 23 frigate, HMS Sutherland arrived on a scheduled visit. Rather than taking on stores and fuel and proceeding as had been planned, the frigate and its Merlin helicopter conducted a patrol of Gibraltar waters as a message.[57]

The intensity of the disagreement about Gibraltar has been perceived in different ways by the two countries. According to former Spanish prime minister Felipe González, "For the British, Gibraltar is a visit to the dentist once a year when we meet to talk about it. For us, it is a stone in the shoe all day long".[58]

Fishing dispute

The United Kingdom and Spain have had several recent disputes over

Exclusive Economic Zone
, just as they do today.

To prevent the fleets of other EU members (particularly Spain) taking up the UK's Common Fisheries Policy

Factortame case. In total, £55m has been paid out by the British government to Spanish parties (both public and private) for loss of earnings.[60]

To this day, the large Spanish fishing fleet does the majority of its fishing outside Spain's EEZ, as far away as Canada and Namibia.[61] Nonetheless, a large part of its business comes from fishing in the waters of northern Europe, particularly those of the United Kingdom and Ireland. At times of debate of the United Kingdom's declining fish stocks, this has caused strained relations between Spain and the UK, and particularly between Spain and the membership of the devolved Scottish institutions, since Scotland is more dependent upon fishing than the rest of the UK.

Scotland and Catalonia

Catalan independence, Prime Minister David Cameron had said that "I don't believe that, in the end, [it's right to] try to ignore these questions of nationality, independence, identity"... I think it's right to make your arguments, take them on and then you let the people decide" though he also added that "I would never presume to tell people in Spain how to meet these challenges themselves; it's a matter for the Spanish Government and the Spanish Prime Minister."[65]

Migration

Main articles:
British migration to Spain and Spaniards in the United Kingdom

The

British-born people live in Spain.[67][68] Of these, according to the BBC and contrary to popular belief, only about 21.5% are over the age of 65.[69]

In 2011, Spanish migration to the UK went up 85%.[70] As for 2012, it was recorded that 69,097 Spanish-born people live in the United Kingdom.[71] On the other hand, in the same period 397,535 British-born people were living in Spain [72]

Twinnings

The list below is of British and Spanish

town twinnings
.

Economic relations

Following Brexit, Trade between the United Kingdom and Spain is governed by the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement since 1 January 2021.[73][74]

Diplomatic missions

The Embassy of Spain is located in London. Spain also has consulates general in Edinburgh and Manchester.

The Embassy of the United Kingdom is located in Madrid. The United Kingdom also has a consulate general in Barcelona and consulates in Alicante, Ibiza, Las Palmas, Málaga, Palma de Mallorca and Santa Cruz de Tenerife.

  • Embassy of Spain in London
    Embassy of Spain in London
  • Embassy of the United Kingdom in Madrid
    Embassy of the United Kingdom in Madrid

See also

References

  1. ^ Alexander Samson, "A Fine Romance: Anglo-Spanish Relations in the Sixteenth Century." Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 39.1 (2009): 65-94. Online[dead link]
  2. ^ Sarah Duncan, "'He to Be Intituled Kinge': King Philip of England and the Anglo-Spanish Court." in C. Beem and M. Taylor, eds. The Man behind the Queen (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014). 55-80.
  3. ^ Wallace T. MacCaffrey, The Shaping of the Elizabethan Regime (1968) pp 271-90.
  4. ^ John Wagner, ed. Historical Dictionary of the Elizabethan World: Britain, Ireland, Europe and America (1999) pp 39, 216, 307-8.
  5. ^ Cornwall & the Isles of Scilly: the complete guide. Troubador Publishing Ltd. p. 20.
  6. ^ Colin Martin and Geoffrey Parker, The Spanish Armada (2nd ed., 1999.
  7. ISBN 9780415190763
    .
  8. ISBN 9780820311036
    .
  9. ISBN 9780191653834
    .
  10. ^ Bradley, Peter T. British Maritime Enterprise in the New World: From the Late Fifteenth to the Mid-eighteenth Century. p. 152.
  11. ^ Fisher, Margaret Anne; Savelle, Max (1967). The origins of American diplomacy: the international history of Angloamerica, 1492-1763 American diplomatic history series Authors. Macmillan. pp. 66–67.
  12. ^ James D. Alsop, "The Age of the Projectors: British Imperial Strategy in the North Atlantic in the War of Spanish Succession." Acadiensis 21.1 (1991): 30-53 online.
  13. ^ Mclachlan 1940, pp. 91–93.
  14. ^ "Spain, Portugal & Italy 1715-88"
  15. ^ "Colonial and State Records of North Carolina".
  16. ^ Powell, William S. (2010). North Carolina Through Four Centuries. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 99.
  17. ^ Georgia Journeys: Being an Account of the Lives of Georgia's Original Settlers and Many Other Early Settlers. University of Georgia Press. 2010. p. 17.
  18. ^ John Holland Rose, William Pitt and national revival (1911) pp 562–87.
  19. ^ Nootka Sound Controversy, The Canadian Encyclopedia
  20. ISBN 0-88894-279-6
    .
  21. ^ Emilia Soler Pascual, "Floridablanca and the Nootka Crisis." International journal of Canadian studies= Revue internationale d'études canadiennes 19 (1999): 167–180. a Spanish perspective, translated into English.
  22. ISBN 9780618349654.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  23. ^ Charles H. MacKay, "The Spanish Ulcer: Origins of the Peninsular War Reconsidered" Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Selected Papers (1998), pp 443-451.
  24. ISSN 0214-4395
    .
  25. ^ F. Darrell Munsell, and John K. Severn, "Wellington's Iberian Policy, 1834-1845," Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings (1990) 20:548-557
  26. ^ C.J. Bartlett, "After Palmerston: Britain and the Iberian Peninsula, 1865-76." English Historical Review 109.430 (1994): 74-88. online
  27. ISSN 0210-9794
    .
  28. ^ Carolyn S. Lowry, "At what cost?: Spanish neutrality in the First World War" (2009). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. online
  29. ISBN 9780521019293
    .
  30. ^ Paul Preston, "Britain and the Basque Campaign of 1937: The Government, the Royal Navy, the Labour Party and the Press." European History Quarterly 48.3 (2018): 490-515.
  31. ^ Denis Smyth, Diplomacy and Strategy of Survival: British Policy and Franco's Spain, 1940-41 (Cambridge UP, 1986).
  32. ^ "WWII Occupation". VisitAlderney.com. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
  33. ^ Pilar Anaya, "The Labour Party, the TUC and Spain, 1959-1977." Labour History Review 64.3 (1999): 269-286.
  34. ^ Scott Ramsay. “Ensuring Benevolent Neutrality: The British Government’s Appeasement of General Franco during the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939.” International History Review 41:3 (2019): 604-623. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2018.1428211.
  35. ISBN 90-411-0362-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )    : "[Spain] has insisted that allowing the Gibraltarians to retain ties with Britain would constitute a partial disruption of Spain's territorial integrity in violation of paragraph 6 of 1514(XV)"
  36. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-11-15. Retrieved 2010-02-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  37. ^ "FOLLOWING INTENSE DEBATE, FOURTH COMMITTEE APPROVES AMENDED OMNIBUS TEXT ON NON-SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES – Meetings Coverage and Press Releases".
  38. ^ "Nuclear sub leaves Gibraltar". BBC News. 7 May 2001. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  39. ^ Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose (27 October 2000). "Spain protests overleaking nuclear sub". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  40. ^ "Ten Greenpeace volunteers arrested in demonstration against HMS Tireless in Gibraltar – Greenpeace UK". Archived from the original on 2017-05-17. Retrieved 2009-09-01.
  41. ^ Sengupta, Kim (19 February 2002). "A beach too far: British marines invade Spain by mistake". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on August 20, 2009. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  42. ^ Tremlett, Giles (19 February 2002). "Tell it to the marines... we've invaded the wrong country". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  43. ^ http://www.dur.ac.uk/resources/ibru/publications/full/bsb7-1_oreilly.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  44. ^ "Declarations or Statements upon UNCLOS ratification".
  45. ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Spain (2008). Informe sobre Gibraltar (PDF) (in Spanish). pp. 8–9.
  46. ^ "Action brought on 6 May 2009 – Government of Gibraltar v Commission (Case T-176/09)".
  47. ^ "Spain/UK to cross swords in Gibraltar waters legal challenge before EC".
  48. ^ "Britain tells Spain violation unacceptable". Archived from the original on 2009-06-01.
  49. ^ "Who Owns Gibraltar? Spain Takes a Step Onto the Rock". Time. 21 July 2009. Archived from the original on July 23, 2009. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  50. ^ "Tension heightens in Gibraltar waters".
  51. ^ Govan, Fiona (20 November 2009). "Royal Navy used 'Spanish flag' for target practice off Gibraltar". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  52. ^ "Trilateral Communique" (PDF).[permanent dead link]
  53. ^ Keeley, Graham (21 July 2009). "Miguel ngel Moratinos Spanish Foreign Minister met by protests on visit to Gibraltar". The Times. London. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  54. ^ "Incident at Harbour Views".[permanent dead link]
  55. ^ "Panorama Home Page".
  56. ^ "Panorama Home Page".
  57. ^ "Royal Navy shows the flag in Gibraltar waters; 197 Spanish unlawful incursions this year".
  58. ISBN 0-415-34795-5
    .
  59. ^ "UK and Spain Fishing Dispute". American University, 11 January 1997. Accessed 22 June 2006.
  60. ^ House of Commons Written Answers for 8 February 2001. Parliament of the United Kingdom, 8 February 2001. Accessed 22 June 2006.
  61. ^ "Iyambo in fish talks with Spanish fisheries minister" Archived 2012-02-24 at the Wayback Machine. Namibia Economist, 17 March 2006. Accessed 22 June 2006.
  62. ^ https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-25132026 BBC
  63. ^ "Salmond: Spain is working with UK to thwart Yes vote". 22 December 2013.
  64. ^ "Scottish or Catalan vote 'torpedoes EU', says Spain's Rajoy". BBC. 27 June 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
  65. ^ CNA. "Catalan News Agency – David Cameron: "let the people decide" and do not "ignore questions of nationality, independence, identity"".
  66. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
    . Retrieved 21 February 2011.
  67. ^ "BBC NEWS – Special Reports – Brits Abroad".
  68. ^ "BBC NEWS – UK – Brits Abroad FAQs: The data". 11 December 2006.
  69. ^ "BBC NEWS | Special Reports | Brits Abroad". BBC News. 6 December 2006.
  70. ^ "Spanish Immigration to the UK up 85%: What This Means for Payments Abroad – LONDON, September 14, 2011 /PRNewswire/" (Press release). United Kingdom: Prnewswire.com. Retrieved 2012-05-21.
  71. ^ http://www.ine.es/prensa/np705.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  72. ^ http://www.ine.es/prensa/np710.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  73. ^ "UK and EU agree Brexit trade deal". GOV.UK. 24 December 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2023.
  74. ^ "Brexit: Landmark UK-EU trade deal to be signed". BBC News. 29 December 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2023.

Further reading

  • Carrió-Invernizzi, Diana. "A new diplomatic history and the networks of Spanish diplomacy in the Baroque Era." International History Review 36.4 (2014): 603-618.
  • Dadson, Trevor J. Britain, Spain and the Treaty of Utrecht 1713–2013 (2014).
  • del Campo, Luis Martínez. Cultural Diplomacy: A Hundred Years of the British-Spanish Society (2016).
  • Edwards, Jill. The British Government and the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939 (2014).
  • Finucane, Adrian. The Temptations of Trade: Britain, Spain, and the Struggle for Empire (2016).
  • Gold, Peter. "Sovereignty negotiations and Gibraltar's military facilities: How two 'red-line' issues became three." Diplomacy and Statecraft 15.2 (2004): 375-384. Covers 2000-2003
    • Gold, Peter. Gibraltar: British or Spanish? (2005).
  • Guymer, Laurence. "The Wedding Planners: Lord Aberdeen, Henry Bulwer, and the Spanish Marriages, 1841–1846." Diplomacy & Statecraft 21.4 (2010): 549-573.
  • Hayes, Paul. Modern British Foreign Policy: The Nineteenth Century 1814–80 (1975) pp. 133–54.
  • Hopkins, James. Into the Heart of the Fire: The British in the Spanish Civil War (2000).
  • Horn, David Bayne. Great Britain and Europe in the eighteenth century (1967), covers 1603 to 1702; pp 269–309.
  • Lozano, Cristina Bravo. Spain and the Irish Mission, 1609–1707 (Routledge, 2018).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spain–United_Kingdom_relations&oldid=1218817694"