Francoist Spain
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Spanish State Estado Español (Spanish) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1936–1975 | |||||||||||
Flag
(1945–1977) Coat of arms
(1945–1977) | |||||||||||
Motto: Plus Ultra ("Further Beyond") | |||||||||||
Anthem: Marcha Granadera ("Grenadier March") | |||||||||||
Capital and largest city | one-party personalist dictatorship | ||||||||||
Caudillo | |||||||||||
• 1936–1975 | Francisco Franco | ||||||||||
Prime Minister | |||||||||||
• 1938–1973 | Francisco Franco | ||||||||||
• 1973 | Luis Carrero Blanco | ||||||||||
• 1973–1975 | Carlos Arias Navarro | ||||||||||
Prince | |||||||||||
• 1969–1975 | Juan Carlos I | ||||||||||
Legislature | Cortes Españolas | ||||||||||
Historical era | Interwar period • World War II • Cold War | ||||||||||
17 July 1936 | |||||||||||
1 April 1939 | |||||||||||
6 July 1947 | |||||||||||
• UN membership | 14 December 1955 | ||||||||||
1 January 1967 | |||||||||||
20 November 1975 | |||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||
1940[1] | 856,045 km2 (330,521 sq mi) | ||||||||||
Population | |||||||||||
• 1940[1] | 25,877,971 | ||||||||||
Currency | +34 | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
Today part of | Equatorial Guinea Morocco Spain Western Sahara | ||||||||||
Francoist Spain (
The nature of the regime evolved and changed during its existence. Months after the start of the
During the
Reforms were implemented in the 1950s and Spain abandoned autarky, reassigned authority from the
Establishment
On 1 October 1936, Franco was formally recognised as
The Francoists took control of Spain through a comprehensive and methodical war of attrition (guerra de desgaste) which involved the imprisonment and executions of Spaniards found guilty of supporting the values promoted by the Republic: regional autonomy, liberal or social democracy, free elections, socialist leanings, and women's rights, including the vote.
Spain's strong ties with the Axis resulted in its international ostracism in the early years following World War II as Spain was not a founding member of the United Nations and did not become a member until 1955.[note 1] This changed with the Cold War that soon followed the end of hostilities in 1945, in the face of which Franco's strong anti-communism naturally tilted its regime to ally with the United States. Independent political parties and trade unions were banned throughout the duration of the dictatorship.[15] Nevertheless, once decrees for economic stabilisation were put forth by the late 1950s, the way was opened for massive foreign investment—"a watershed in post-war economic, social and ideological normalisation leading to extraordinarily rapid economic growth"—that marked Spain's "participation in the Europe-wide post-war economic normality centred on mass consumption and consensus, in contrast to the concurrent reality of the Soviet bloc".[16]
On 26 July 1947, Spain was declared a kingdom, but no monarch was designated until in 1969 Franco established
Government
After Franco's victory in 1939, the Falange was declared the sole legally sanctioned political party in Spain and it asserted itself as the main component of the National Movement. In a state of emergency-like status, Franco ruled with, on paper, more power than any Spanish leader before or since. He was not even required to consult his cabinet for most legislation.[17] According to historian Stanley G. Payne, Franco had more day-to-day power than Adolf Hitler or Joseph Stalin possessed at the respective heights of their power. Payne noted that Hitler and Stalin at least maintained rubber-stamp parliaments, while Franco dispensed with even that formality in the early years of his rule. According to Payne, the lack of even a rubber-stamp parliament made Franco's government "the most purely arbitrary in the world."[18] The 100-member National Council of the Movement served as a makeshift legislature until the passing of the organic law of 1942 and the Ley Constitutiva de las Cortes (Constituent Law of the Cortes) the same year, which saw the grand opening of the Cortes Españolas on 18 July 1942.[citation needed]
The Organic Law made the executive government ultimately responsible for passing all laws,[19] while defining the Cortes as a purely advisory body elected by neither direct nor universal suffrage. The Cortes had no power over government spending, and the government was not responsible for it; ministers were appointed and dismissed by Franco alone as the "Chief" of state and government. The Ley del Referendum Nacional (Law of the National Referendum), passed in 1945 approved for all "fundamental laws" to be approved by a popular referendum, in which only the heads of families could vote. Local municipal councils were appointed similarly by heads of families and local corporations through local municipal elections while mayors were appointed by the government. It was thus one of the most centralised countries in Europe and certainly the most centralised in Western Europe following the fall of the Portuguese Estado Novo in the Carnation Revolution.
The referendum law was used twice during Franco's rule—in 1947, when a
In 1973, due to old age and to lessen his burdens in governing Spain he resigned as Prime Minister and named Navy Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco to the said post, but Franco remained as the Chief of State, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and Jefe del Movimiento (Chief of the Movement). However, Carrero Blanco was assassinated in the same year and Carlos Arias Navarro became the country's new Prime Minister.
Armed forces
During the first year of peace, Franco dramatically reduced the size of the
Colonial empire and decolonisation
Spain attempted to retain control of the last remnants of
In 1968, under United Nations pressure, Franco granted Spain's colony of Equatorial Guinea its independence and the next year ceded the exclave of Ifni to Morocco. Under Franco, Spain also pursued a campaign to gain sovereignty of the British overseas territory of Gibraltar and closed its border in 1969. The border would not be fully reopened until 1985.
Francoism
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Francoism |
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Eagle of Saint John |
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Falangism |
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Yoke and arrows |
Initially the regime embraced the definition of "
While the regime evolved along with its protracted history, the primitive essence of it remained, underpinned by the legal concentration of all powers into a single person, Francisco Franco, "Caudillo of Spain by the Grace of God", embodying national sovereignty and "only responsible before God and History.[23]
The consistent points in Francoism included above all
Development
The Falange Española de las JONS, a fascist party formed during the Republic, soon transformed itself into the framework of reference in the National Movement. In April 1937, the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista (Traditionalist Spanish Phalanx and of the Councils of National Syndicalist Offensive) was created from the absorption of the Comunión Tradicionalista (Traditionalist Communion) by the Falange Española de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista, which itself was the result of an earlier absorption of the Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista by José Antonio Primo de Rivera's Falange Española. This party, often referred to as Falange, became the sole legal party during Franco's regime, but the term "party" was generally avoided, especially after World War II, when it was commonly referred to as the "National Movement" or just as "the Movement".
Fascism and authoritarianism
The main point of those scholars that tend to consider the Spanish State to be authoritarian rather than fascist is that the FET-JONS were relatively heterogeneous rather than being an ideological monolith.
The Spanish State was authoritarian: Non-government
Members of the oppressed ranged from Catholic trade unions to
Franco continued to personally sign all death warrants until just months before he died despite international campaigns requesting him to desist.
Spanish nationalism
Franco's Spanish nationalism promoted a Castilian-centric unitary national identity by repressing Spain's cultural diversity. Bullfighting and flamenco[35] were promoted as national traditions, while those traditions not considered Spanish were suppressed. Franco's view of Spanish tradition was somewhat artificial and arbitrary: while some regional traditions were suppressed, Flamenco, an Andalusian tradition, was considered part of a larger, national identity. All cultural activities were subject to censorship and many were forbidden entirely, often in an erratic manner. This cultural policy relaxed over time, most notably in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Franco was reluctant to enact any form of administrative and legislative decentralisation and kept a fully centralised form of government with a similar administrative structure to that established by the House of Bourbon and General Miguel Primo de Rivera. These structures were modelled after the centralised French state. As a result of this type of governance, government attention and initiatives were irregular and often depended more on the goodwill of government representatives than on regional needs. Thus inequalities in schooling, health care or transport facilities among regions were patent: historically affluent regions like Madrid, Catalonia or the Basque Country fared much better than others such as Extremadura, Galicia or Andalusia.
Roman Catholicism
Franco's regime often used religion as a means to increase its popularity throughout the Catholic world, especially after the Second World War. Franco himself was increasingly portrayed as a fervent Catholic and a staunch defender of Roman Catholicism, the declared
The
The authorities encouraged denunciations in the workplace. For example, Barcelona's city hall obliged all government functionaries to "tell the proper authorities who the leftists are in your department and everything you know about their activities". A law passed in 1939 institutionalised the purging of public offices.
Civil marriages that had taken place in the Republic were declared null and void unless they had been validated by the Church, along with divorces. Divorce, contraception and abortions were forbidden.[41] Children had to be given Christian names.[42] Franco was made a member of the Supreme Order of Christ by Pope Pius XII whilst Spain itself was consecrated to the Sacred Heart.[43]
The Catholic Church's ties with the Franco dictatorship gave it control over the country's schools and
The orphaned children of "Reds" were taught in orphanages run by priests and nuns that "their parents had committed great sins that they could help expiate, for which many were incited to serve the Church".[46]
Francoism professed a strong devotion to militarism, hypermasculinity and the traditional role of women in society.[47] A woman was to be loving to her parents and brothers, faithful to her husband and to reside with her family. Official propaganda confined women's roles to family care and motherhood. Most progressive laws passed by the Second Republic were declared void. Women could not become judges, or testify in the trial.[citation needed] They could not become university professors.[citation needed] In the 1960s and 1970s, there was increasing liberalization, yet such measures would continue until Franco's death.
In 1947, Franco proclaimed Spain a monarchy through the Ley de Sucesión en la Jefatura del Estado act, but did not designate a monarch. He had no particular desire for a king because of his strained relations with the legitimist heir to the Crown, Juan of Bourbon. Therefore, he left the throne vacant with himself as regent and set the basis for his succession. This gesture was largely done to appease monarchist factions within the Movement. At the same time, Franco wore the uniform of a captain-general (a rank traditionally reserved for the King), resided in the Royal Palace of El Pardo, appropriated the kingly privilege of walking beneath a canopy and his portrait appeared on most Spanish coins. Indeed, although his formal titles were Jefe del Estado (Head of State) and Generalísimo de los Ejércitos Españoles (Generalissimo of the Spanish Armies), he was referred to as Caudillo of Spain, by the Grace of God. Por la Gracia de Dios is a technical, legal formulation which states sovereign dignity in absolute monarchies and had been used only by monarchs before.
The long-delayed selection of Juan Carlos of Bourbon as Franco's official successor in 1969 was an unpleasant surprise for many interested parties as Juan Carlos was the rightful heir for neither the Carlists nor the Legitimists.[citation needed]
Women in Francoist Spain
Women had first been granted the right to vote in Spain during the Second Republic. Under the new constitution they had gained full legal status and equal access to the labor market, abortion had been legalized and the crime of adultery abolished.[48]
The Franco regime's embrace of National Catholicism (nacionalcatolicismo) as part of its ideological identity meant that the Catholic Church, which traditionally supported the social subordination of women, had preeminence in all aspects of public and private life in Spain. The Catholic Church had a central role in upholding the traditional role of the family and women's place in it. Civil marriage had also been introduced in the country during the Republic, so the Church immediately asked the new Franco regime to restore its control of family and marriage laws. All Spanish women were required by the state to serve for six months in the Women's Section (Sección Femenina), the female branch of the Falange state party, to undergo training for motherhood along with political indoctrination.[49]
Francoism professed a devotion to the traditional role of a woman in society; that is, being a loving daughter and sister to her parents and brothers, being a faithful wife to her husband, and residing with her family. Official propaganda confined the role of women to family care and motherhood.[50] Immediately after the civil war most progressive laws passed by the Republic aimed at equality between the sexes were nullified. Women could not become judges or testify in a trial. Their affairs and economic lives had to be managed by their fathers and husbands. Until the 1970s, a woman could not open a bank account without having it co-signed by her father or husband.[51] In the 1960s and 1970s these restrictions were somewhat relaxed.
Francoist influence in Chile
Francoism had an influence abroad in Chile, where it found clear expressions in the
Already in from the first days of after the 1973 Chilean coup d'état Guzmán became advisor and speechwriter of dictator Augusto Pinochet.[58] While writing the Constitution of Chile of 1980 Jaime Guzmán studied the institutionalization of Francoism in Spain with the aim of preventing undesired reforms in future as it happened in Spain with the post-Franco constitution of 1977.[52] Josemaría Escrivá, the founder of Opus Dei, visited Chile 1974 after which Opus Dei begun to spread in the country.[59] Opus Dei helped establish the University of the Andes in 1989.[59][52] Both the University of the Andes and the political party Independent Democratic Union, founded in 1983 by Guzmán, have a Francoist heritage.[52] In the 1970s Pinochet's dictatorship organized ritualized acts reminiscent of Francoist Spain, notably Acto de Chacarillas.[60] After 1980 Francoist influence gave way to economic liberalism.[52] Even Guzmán, once clearly influenced by Francoist corporatism,[56] adopted economic liberalism from the Chicago Boys and writings such as The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism.[54]
In 1975 Pinochet and his wife
Narrative of the Civil War
For nearly twenty years after the war, Francoist Spain presented the conflict as a crusade against Bolshevism in defence of Christian civilization. In Francoist narrative, authoritarianism had defeated anarchy and overseen the elimination of "agitators", those "without God" and the "Judeo-Masonic conspiracy". Since Franco had relied on thousands of North African soldiers, anti-Islamic sentiment "was played down but the centuries-old myth of the Moorish threat lay at the base of the construction of the "communist menace" as a modern-day Eastern plague".[63] The official position was therefore that the wartime Republic was simply a proto-Stalinist monolith, its leaders intent on creating a Spanish Soviet satellite. Many Spanish children grew up believing the war was fought against foreigners and the painter Julian Grau Santos has said "it was instilled in me and I always believed that Spain had won the war against foreign enemies of our historic greatness".[citation needed] About 6,832 Catholic clergy were murdered by the Republicans.[64] Collectively, they are known as the martyrs of the Spanish Civil War.[65]
Media
Under the 1938 Press Law, all newspapers were put under prior censorship and were forced to include any articles the government desired. Chief editors were nominated by the government and all journalists were required to be registered. All liberal, republican and left-wing media were prohibited.
The Delegación Nacional de Prensa y Propaganda was established as a network of government media, including daily newspapers Diario Arriba and Pueblo. The EFE and Pyresa government news agencies were created in 1939 and 1945. The Radio Nacional de España state radio had the exclusive right to transmit news bulletins, which all broadcasters were required to air. The No-Do were 10-minute newsreels shown at all cinemas. The Televisión Española, the government television network, debuted in 1956.
The Roman Catholic Church had its own media outlets, including the Ya newspaper and the Cadena COPE radio network. Other pro-government media included Cadena SER, ABC, La Vanguardia Española, El Correo and El Diario Vasco.
Notable independent media outlets included humour magazine La Codorniz.
The 1966 Press Law dropped the prior censorship regime and allowed media outlets to select their own directors, although criticism was still a crime.
Economic policy
The Civil War had ravaged the Spanish economy. Infrastructure had been damaged, workers killed and daily business severely hampered. For more than a decade after Franco's victory, the economy improved little. Franco initially pursued a policy of autarky, cutting off almost all international trade. The policy had devastating effects and the economy stagnated. Only black marketeers could enjoy an evident affluence.[66]
In 1940, the
The Francoist agrarian colonisation was one of the most ambitious programs related to the regime's agrarian policies, which were an answer to the Republic's Law of Agrarian Reform and the war-time collectivizations.
On the brink of bankruptcy, a combination of pressure from the United States (including about $1.5 billion in aid 1954–1964), the IMF and technocrats from Opus Dei managed to "convince" the regime to liberalize the economy in 1959 in what amounted to a mini coup d'état which removed the old guard in charge of the economy, despite the opposition of Franco. However, this economic liberalisation was not accompanied by political reforms and oppression continued unabated.
Economic growth picked up after 1959 after Franco took authority away from these ideologues and gave more power to the
During the 1960s, Spain experienced further increases in wealth. International firms established their factories in Spain. Spain became the second-fastest-growing economy in the world, alongside Brazil and just behind Japan. The rapid development of this period became known as the "Spanish Miracle". At the time of Franco's death, Spain still lagged behind most of Western Europe, but the gap between its GDP per capita and that of the major Western European economies had greatly narrowed. In world terms, Spain was already enjoying a fairly high material standard of living with basic but comprehensive services. However, the period between the mid-1970s and mid-1980s was to prove difficult as in addition to the oil shocks to which Spain was highly exposed, the settling of the new political order took priority over the modernising of the economy.[citation needed]
Legacy
In Spain and abroad, the legacy of Franco remains controversial. In Germany, a squadron named after Werner Mölders has been renamed because as a pilot he led the escorting units in the bombing of Guernica. As recently as 2006, the BBC reported that Maciej Giertych, an MEP of the right-wing League of Polish Families, had expressed admiration for Franco's stature who he believed had "guaranteed the maintenance of traditional values in Europe".[76]
Spanish opinion has changed. Most statues of Franco and other public Francoist symbols have been removed, with the last statue in Madrid coming down in 2005.
In Spain, a commission to restore the dignity of the victims of Franco's regime and pay tribute to their memory (comisión para reparar la dignidad y restituir la memoria de las víctimas del franquismo) was approved in the summer of 2004 and was directed by the then-Vice President María Teresa Fernández de la Vega.[78] Because of his repressive regional linguistic policies, Franco's memory is still particularly resented in Catalonia and the Basque Country.[citation needed] The Basque Provinces and Catalonia were among the regions that offered the strongest resistance to Franco in the Civil War, as well as during his regime.
In 2008, the
Investigations have begun into wide-scale child abduction during the Franco years. The lost children of Francoism may reach 300,000.[81][82]
Flags and heraldry
Flags
At the conclusion of the Spanish Civil War and in spite of the army's reorganisation, several sections of the army continued with their bi-colour flags improvised in 1936, but since 1940 new ensigns began to be distributed, whose main innovation was the addition of the
During this period, two more flags were usually displayed along with the national flag: the flag of Falange (red, black and red vertical stripes, with the
From the death of Franco in 1975 until 1977, the national flag followed the 1945 regulations. On 21 January 1977, a new regulation was approved that stipulated an eagle with more open wings, with the restored Pillars of Hercules placed within the wings and the tape with the motto "
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State flag (July 17, 1936 – August 29, 1936)
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State flag (August 30, 1936 – 1938)
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State flag (1938–1945)
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State flag (1945–1977)
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Civil flag (1936–1975)
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Flag of the Falange Movement
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Flag of the Traditionalist Movement (Carlism)
Standards
From 1940 to 1975, Franco used the Royal Bend of Castile as Head of State's standard and guidon: the Bend between the Pillars of Hercules, crowned with an imperial crown and open royal crown.
As Prince of Spain from 1969 to 1975, Juan Carlos used a royal standard which was virtually identical to the one later adopted when he became King in 1975. The earlier standard differed only that it featured the royal crown of a Crown Prince, the King's royal crown has 8 arches of which 5 are visible, while the Prince's one has only 4 arches of which 3 are visible. The Royal Standard of Spain consists of a dark blue square with the coat of arms in the centre. The King's guidon is identical to the standard.
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Standard of Francisco Franco (1940–1975)
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Royal standard of the Prince of Spain (1969–1975)
Coat of arms
In 1938, Franco adopted a variant of the coat of arms reinstating some elements originally used by the House of Trastámara such as Saint John's eagle and the yoke and arrows as follows: "Quarterly, 1 and 4. quarterly Castile and León, 2 and 3. per pale Aragon and Navarra, enté en point of Granada. The arms are crowned with an open royal crown, placed on eagle displayed sable, surrounded with the pillars of Hercules, the yoke and the bundle of arrows of the Catholic Monarchs".
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Coat of arms (1936–1938)
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Coat of arms (1938–1945)
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Simplified version of the coat of arms to promote bureaucratic aims. It was used on stamps, lottery tickets, identity documents, and buildings. A popular name for it was "coat of arms of the Eagle" (1938–1945).
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Coat of arms (1945–1977)
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Coat of arms of Francisco Franco (1940–1975)
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Coat of arms of the Prince of Spain (1969–1975)
See also
- Art and culture in Francoist Spain
- European interwar dictatorships
- Francoist Catalonia
- Francoist concentration camps
- Instituto Nacional de Colonización
- Language policies of Francoist Spain
- List of people executed by Francoist Spain
- Nationalist foreign volunteers
- Pact of forgetting
- Sociological Francoism
- White Terror (Spain)
Notes
References
- ^ (in Spanish) "Resumen general de la población de España en 31 de Diciembre de 1940". INE. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
- ^ Saz Campos 2004, p. 90.
- ^ a b «La tesis defendida por Payne en dicho dossier puede sintetizarse con estas palabras:
» Glicerio Sanchez Recio. En torno a la Dictadura franquista Hispania NovaEntre 1937 y 1943, el franquismo constituyó un régimen "semi-fascista", pero nunca un régimen fascista cien por cien. Después pasó treinta y dos años evolucionando como un sistema autoritario "posfascista", aunque no consiguió eliminar completamente todos los vestigios residuales del fascismo.
- ^ Moradiellos 2000, p. 20.
- ^ Cabrera & Rey 2017; Capítulo V
- ^ «La ausencia de un ideario definido le permitió transitar de unas fórmulas dictatoriales a otras, rozando el fascismo en los cuarenta y a las dictaduras desarrollistas en los sesenta».Tusell 1999, cap. «El franquismo como dictadura».
- ^ Reuter, Tim (19 May 2014). "Before China's Transformation, There Was The 'Spanish Miracle'". Forbes Magazine. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
- ^ Payne (2000), p. 645
- ^ Paul Preston, Chapter 6 "The Making of a Caudillo" in Franco: A Biography (1993), pp. 171–198.
- ^ Preston (1993), Chapter 10. "The Making of a Dictator: Franco and the Unification April 1937", pp. 248–274.
- ^ Ángela Cenarro Lagunas, "Historia y memoria del Auxilio Social de Falange" in Pliegos de Juste 11–12 (2010), pp. 71–74.
- ISBN 978-8479625177.
- ^ Franco's description: "The work of pacification and moral redemption must necessarily be undertaken slowly and methodically, otherwise military occupation will serve no purpose". Roberto Cantalupo, Fu la Spagna: Ambasciata presso Franco: de la guerra civil, Madrid, 1999: pp. 206–208.
- ISBN 978-0521821780.
- ^ The Splintering of Spain, p. 4. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ The Splintering of Spain, p. 7.
- ^ Payne, pp. 231–234
- ^ Payne, p. 323.
- ^ "Spain – The Franco Years". countrystudies.us.
- ^ ISBN 978-0275993573.
- ISBN 978-0299110741.
- ^ JSTOR 40340643.
- ^ a b c Viñao Frago, Antonio (2014). "La educación en el franquismo (1936–1975)" (PDF). Educar em Revista (51). Curitiba: 20–21.
- ISBN 0268032688
- ISBN 0870237985.
franco integralism.
- ^ a b Payne, Stanley Fascism in Spain, 1923–1977, p. 476. 1999. Univ. of Wisconsin Press
- ^ Laqueur, Walter Fascism: Past, Present, Future, p. 13, 1997 Oxford University Press US
- ^ Fascism: Past, Present, Future. Google Books.
- ISBN 0007195745; see also United Nations Security Council Resolution 7
- ^ De Menses, Filipe Ribeiro Franco and the Spanish Civil War, p. 87, Routledge
- ^ Gilmour, David, The Transformation of Spain: From Franco to the Constitutional Monarchy, p. 7. 1985. Quartet Books
- ^ Payne, Stanley Fascism in Spain, 1923–1977, pp. 347, 476. 1999. Univ. of Wisconsin Press
- ^ Laqueur, Walter Fascism: Past, Present, Future p. 13. 1996. Oxford University Press
- ^ "The Franco Years: Policies, Programs, and Growing Popular Unrest" A Country Study: Spain
- ^ Roman, Mar. "Spain frets over future of flamenco." 27 October 2007. Associated Press
- ISBN 978-8493914394.
- ISBN 978-0268083526.
- ^ Unearthing Franco's Legacy, pp. 108–115
- ^ Unearthing Franco's Legacy, p. 103
- ISBN 978-0268083526.
- ^ "Franco edicts". Archived from the original on 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2005-12-16.
- ^ "The regulation of identity through names and naming in Twentieth Century Spain". 6 July 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
- ISBN 0007195745.
- ^ Unearthing Franco's Legacy p. 112
- ^ Unearthing Franco's Legacy, p. 113
- ISBN 978-0268083526.
- .
- ISBN 978-1611475906.
- ISBN 978-0415347945.
- ISBN 978-9004259966.
- ISBN 0802716741. p. 211.
- ^ a b c d e "'De Franco a Pinochet': La historia de un fracaso exitoso". Noticias (in Spanish). Universidad de Chile. 2007-05-29. Retrieved 2022-05-10.
- ^ Góngora, Álvaro; de la Taille, Alexandrine; Vial, Gonzalo. Jaime Eyzaguirre en su tiempo (in Spanish). Zig-Zag. pp. 225–226.
- ^ ISBN 978-9562845205.
- ^ a b Rojas Sánchez, Gonzalo. Gazmuri y Su "Gremialismo".
- ^ .
- ^ Díaz Nieva, José (2008). "Influencias de Juan Vázquez de Mella sobre Jaime Guzmán" (PDF). Verbo (in Spanish). 467–468: 661–670. Retrieved 11 October 2015.
- ^ Basso Prieto, Carlos (2013-11-05). "Los informes secretos de la CIA sobre Jaime Guzmán". El Mostrador. Retrieved 2021-09-29.
- ^ a b "Libros: El Imperio del Opus Dei en Chile". Universidad de Chile (in Spanish). Retrieved 2022-05-19.
- .
- ^ "Lucía Hiriart, la mujer de poder de la dictadura de Augusto Pinochet". SWI swissinfo.ch. 16 December 2021.
- ^ ""Viudos de Franco" homenajearon a Pinochet en España". Archived from the original on February 5, 2015.
- ^ Michael Richards, ''Unearthing Franco's Legacy'', p. 129.
- ^ Julio de la Cueva, "Religious Persecution, Anticlerical Tradition and Revolution: On Atrocities against the Clergy during the Spanish Civil War" Journal of Contemporary History 33.3 (July 1998): 355.
- ^ Butler, Alban and Peter Doyle Butler's Lives of the Saints p. 169 Liturgical Press (February 2000).
- ISBN 978-1444306507. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
- ^ Alares López, Gustavo (2020). "La colonización agraria franquista: Mitos, límites y realidades de una política agraria" (PDF). Revista de Andorra (19). Andorra: Centro de Estudios Locales de Andorra: 96.
- ^ Perfecto 2015, p. 147.
- ^ Alares López 2020, pp. 96–97.
- ISSN 1130-0124.
- ^ Alares López 2020, p. 97.
- ^ Alares López 2020, pp. 103–104.
- ^ Alares López 2020, p. 99.
- ^ Hernando, Silvia (30 May 2018). "Los pueblos que se inventó Franco". El País.
- ^ "Spain relocates dictator Franco's remains". BBC News. 24 October 2019. Retrieved 4 November 2019.
- ^ Europe diary: Franco and Finland, BBC News, 6 July 2006 (in English)
- ^ Madrid removes last Franco statue, BBC News, 17 March 2005 (in English)
- ^ a b c d e f Primera condena al régimen de Franco en un recinto internacional, EFE, El Mundo, 17 March 2006 (in Spanish)
- ^ Von Martyna Czarnowska, Almunia, Joaquin: EU-Kommission (4): Ein halbes Jahr Vorsprung Archived 2006-02-13 at the Wayback Machine, Weiner Zeitung, 17 February 2005 (article in German language). Accessed 26 August 2006.
- ^ "Bones of Contention". The Economist. 27 September 2008. Archived from the original on 4 October 2008. Retrieved 6 October 2008.
- ^ Adler, Katya (18 October 2011). "Spain's stolen babies and the families who lived a lie". BBC News.
- ^ Tremlett, Giles (27 January 2011). "Victims of Spanish 'stolen babies network' call for investigation". The Guardian.
Sources
- ISBN 978-0-7546-0077-0.
- ISBN 8477387400.
- ISBN 8437059100.
- Tusell, Javier (1999). Historia de España en el siglo XX. III, La dictadura de Franco (1st ed.). Madrid: Taurus. ISBN 8430603328.
Further reading
- ISBN 189795963X
- Payne, S. (1987). The Franco Regime (1st ed.). Madison, WI: ISBN 0299110702
- Luis Fernandez. Franco. Editorial.
External links
- Media related to Francoist dictatorship at Wikimedia Commons
- Text of Franco's Fundamental Laws at the Wayback Machine (archived July 2, 2007), the Spanish Constitution under Franco. (in Spanish)
- Texts on Wikisource: