Native Americans in the United States: Difference between revisions

Native Americans

File:Touch the Clouds 1877a.jpg File:Charles eastman smithsonian gn 03462a-cropped.jpg Native Americans of the United States (from top left): Russian Orthodox Traditional Ceremonial Ways (Unique to Specific Tribe or Band)
Related ethnic groups
Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Native Americans in the United States are the

set of home interviews, most of the respondents with an expressed preference refer to themselves as American Indians or Indians.

In the last 500 years,

After the colonies revolted against Great Britain and established the United States of America, President George Washington and Henry Knox conceived of the idea of "civilizing" Native Americans in preparation for United States citizenship.^{[6][7][8][9][10]} Assimilation (whether voluntary as with the Choctaw,^[11][12] or forced) became a consistent policy through American administrations. During the 19th century, the ideology of Manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands, warfare between the groups, and rising tensions. In 1830, the U.S. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, authorizing the government to relocate most Native Americans of the Deep South east of the Mississippi River from their homelands to accommodate European-American expansion from the United States. Government officials thought that by decreasing the conflict between the groups, they could also help the Indians survive. Remnant groups have descendants living throughout the South. They have organized and been recognized as tribes since the late 20th century by several states and, in some cases, by the federal government.

The first European Americans encountered western tribes as fur traders. As United States expansion reached into the

", which were frequent up until the 1890s. The coming of the transcontinental railroad increased pressures on the western tribes. Over time, the U.S. forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, and established reservations for them in many western states. U.S. agents encouraged Native Americans to adopt European-style farming and similar pursuits, but the lands were often too poor to support such uses.

Contemporary Native Americans today have a unique relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes, or bands of Native Americans who have sovereignty or independence from the government of the United States. Their societies and cultures flourish within a larger population of descendants of immigrants (both voluntary and slave):

.

History

Pre-Columbian

Clovis theory

).

According to the still-debated

of crops, and subsequently a dramatic rise in population all over the Americas.

The big-game hunting culture labeled as the

(roughly 9100 to 8850 BC).

Numerous

The

.

.

The

File:Nordamerikanische Kulturareale en.png

The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations, who were connected by a common network of trade routes,^[25] known as the Hopewell Exchange System. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell exchange system ran from the Southeastern United States into the southeastern Canadian shores of Lake Ontario. Within this area, societies participated in a high degree of exchange with the highest amount of activity along the waterways serving as their major transportation routes. The Hopewell exchange system traded materials from all over the United States.

Coles Creek culture is an archaeological culture from the Lower Mississippi valley in the southern present-day United States. The period marked a significant change in the cultural history of the area. Population increased dramatically. There is strong evidence of a growing cultural and political complexity, especially by the end of the Coles Creek sequence. Although many of the classic traits of chiefdom societies were not yet manifested, by 1000 CE the formation of simple elite polities had begun. Coles Creek sites are found in Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Mississippi, and Texas. It is considered ancestral to the Plaquemine culture.

Although not as technologically advanced as the

The Mississippian culture created the largest

poles were placed to mark the summer and winter solstices and fall and spring equinoxes. Its peak population in 1250 AD of 30,000–40,000 people was not equalled by any city in the present-day United States until after 1800. In addition, Cahokia was a major regional chiefdom, with trade and tributary chiefdoms ranging from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.

The

Long-distance trading did not prevent warfare among the indigenous peoples. For instance, archaeology and the tribes' oral histories have contributed to an understanding that the Iroquois' conducted invasions and warfare about 1200 CE against tribes in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky. Finally they drove many to migrate west to their historically traditional lands west of the Mississippi River. Tribes originating in the Ohio Valley who moved west included the Osage, Kaw, Ponca and Omaha people. By the mid-17th century, they had resettled in their historical lands in present-day Kansas, Nebraska, Arkansas and Oklahoma. The Osage warred with native Caddo-speaking Native Americans, displacing them in turn by the mid-18th century and dominating their new historical territories.^[33]

European exploration and colonization

After 1492

In the beliefs.

Impact on Native populations

From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Native Americans declined in the following ways:

.

The lack of hard evidence or written records has made estimating the number of Native Americans living in what is today the United States of America before the arrival of the European explorers and settlers the subject of much debate. A low estimate arriving at around 1 million was first posited by anthropologist James Mooney in the 1890s, computing population density of each culture area based on its carrying capacity.

In 1965, American

.)

In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans.^[46] Historians believe many Mohawk Native Americans in present-day New York were infected after contact with children of Dutch traders in Albany in 1634. The disease swept through Mohawk villages, reaching Native Americans at Lake Ontario by 1636, and the lands of the western Iroquois by 1679, as it was carried by Mohawk and other Native Americans who traveled the trading routes.^[47] The high rate of fatalities caused breakdowns in Native American societies and disrupted generational exchanges of culture.

Between 1754 and 1763 many Native American tribes were involved in the

with French forces against British colonial militias. Native Americans fought on both sides of the conflict. The greater number of tribes fought with the French in the hopes of checking European expansion. The British had made fewer allies, but had some tribes that wanted to prove assimilation and loyalty in support of treaties. They were often disappointed when these were later overturned. In addition, the tribes had their own purposes, using their alliances with the European powers to battle traditional Native enemies.

After European explorers reached the West Coast in the 1770s, smallpox rapidly killed at least 30% of Northwest Coast Native Americans. For the next 80 to 100 years, smallpox and other diseases devastated native populations in the region.^[48] Puget Sound area populations, once estimated as high as 37,000 people, were reduced to only 9,000 survivors by the time settlers arrived en masse in the mid-19th century.^[49] Although the Spanish missions in California did not significantly affect the Population of Native American Californians, their number saw a rapid decrease after California ceased to be a Spanish colony, specially during the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th (see chart on the right).

Smallpox epidemics in

Animal introductions

With the meeting of two worlds, animals, insects, and plants were exchanged between the two. Sheep, pigs, and cattle were all Old World animals that were introduced to contemporary Native Americans who never knew such animals.^[citation needed]

In the 16th century, Spaniards and other Europeans brought

] Some of the horses escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild.

The reintroduction of the horse to

]

Foundations for freedom

Some Europeans considered Native American societies to be representative of a golden age known to them only in folk history.

Natural freedom is the only object of the policy of the [Native Americans]; with this freedom do nature and climate rule alone amongst them ... [Native Americans] maintain their freedom and find abundant nourishment... [and are] people who live without laws, without police, without religion.

— 

Jean Jacques Rousseau, Jesuit and Savage in New France^[54]

The

As powerful, dense [Mound Builder] populations were reduced to weakened, scattered remnants, political readjustments were necessary. New confederacies were formed. One such was to become a pattern called up by Benjamin Franklin when the thirteen colonies struggled to confederate: 'If the Iroquois can do it so can we,' he said in substance.

— 

Bob Ferguson, Choctaw Government to 1830^[58]

In October 1988, the U.S. Congress passed Concurrent Resolution 331 to recognize the influence of the Iroquois Constitution upon the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights.[59] Those who argue against Iroquoian influence point to lack of evidence in U.S. constitutional debate records, and democratic U.S. institutions having ample antecedents in European ideas.^[60]

Colonials revolt

Creek

Native Americans meet with the Trustee of the colony of Georgia in England, July 1734. The painting shows a Native American boy (in a blue coat) and woman (in a red dress) in European clothing.

During the

. The only Iroquois tribes to ally with the colonials were the Oneida and Tuscarora.

. The expedition failed to have the desired effect: Native American activity became even more determined.

American Indians have played a central role in shaping the history of the nation, and they are deeply woven into the social fabric of much of American life.... During the last three decades of the twentieth century, scholars of ethnohistory, of the "new Indian history," and of Native American studies forcefully demonstrated that to understand American history and the American experience, one must include American Indians.

— Robbie Ethridge, Creek Country.[62]

File:Rebellion to Tyrants colonial medal Virginia.jpg

The British made peace with the Americans in the Treaty of Paris (1783), through which they ceded vast Native American territories to the United States without informing the Native Americans, leading immediately to the Northwest Indian War. The United States initially treated the Native Americans who had fought with the British as a conquered people who had lost their lands. Although many of the Iroquois tribes went to Canada with the Loyalists, others tried to stay in New York and western territories and tried to maintain their lands. Nonetheless, the state of New York made a separate treaty with Iroquois and put up for sale 5,000,000 acres (20,000 km²) of land that had previously been their territory. The state established a reservation near Syracuse for the Onondagas who had been allies of the colonists.

The Indians presented a reverse image of European civilization which helped America establish a national identity that was neither savage nor civilized.

— Charles Sanford, The Quest for Paradise^[58]

The United States was eager to expand, to develop farming and settlements in new areas, and to satisfy land hunger of settlers from New England and new immigrants. The national government initially sought to purchase Native American land by

Transmuted Native America

European nations sent Native Americans (sometimes against their will) to the Old World as objects of curiosity. They often entertained royalty and were sometimes prey to commercial purposes. Christianization of Native Americans was a charted purpose for some European colonies.

Whereas it hath at this time become peculiarly necessary to warn the citizens of the United States against a violation of the treaties.... I do by these presents require, all officers of the United States, as well civil as military, and all other citizens and inhabitants thereof, to govern themselves according to the treaties and act aforesaid, as they will answer the contrary at their peril.

— -George Washington, Proclamation Regarding Treaties, 1790.^[65]

United States policy toward Native Americans had continued to evolve after the American Revolution. George Washington and Henry Knox believed that Native Americans were equals but that their society was inferior. Washington formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing" process.^[7] Washington had a six-point plan for civilization which included,

1. impartial justice toward Native Americans
2. regulated buying of Native American lands
3. promotion of commerce
4. promotion of experiments to civilize or improve Native American society
5. presidential authority to give presents
6. punishing those who violated Native American rights.^[9]

Creek

Native Americans how to use European technology. Painted in 1805.

Robert Remini, a historian, wrote that "once the Indians adopted the practice of private property, built homes, farmed, educated their children, and embraced Christianity, these Native Americans would win acceptance from white Americans."^[8] The United States appointed agents, like Benjamin Hawkins, to live among the Native Americans and to teach them how to live like whites.^[6]

How different would be the sensation of a philosophic mind to reflect that instead of exterminating a part of the human race by our modes of population that we had persevered through all difficulties and at last had imparted our Knowledge of cultivating and the arts, to the Aboriginals of the Country by which the source of future life and happiness had been preserved and extended. But it has been conceived to be impracticable to civilize the Indians of North America — This opinion is probably more convenient than just.

— -Henry Knox to George Washington, 1790s.^[64]

Assimilation

File:Assmilation of Native Americans.jpg

In the late 18th century, reformers starting with Washington and Knox,

of 1819 promoted this civilization policy by providing funding to societies (mostly religious) who worked on Native American improvement.

I rejoice, brothers, to hear you propose to become cultivators of the earth for the maintenance of your families. Be assured you will support them better and with less labor, by raising stock and bread, and by spinning and weaving clothes, than by hunting. A little land cultivated, and a little labor, will procure more provisions than the most successful hunt; and a woman will clothe more by spinning and weaving, than a man by hunting. Compared with you, we are but as of yesterday in this land. Yet see how much more we have multiplied by industry, and the exercise of that reason which you possess in common with us. Follow then our example, brethren, and we will aid you with great pleasure....

— President Thomas Jefferson, Brothers of the Choctaw Nation, December 17, 1803[67]

After the American Civil War and Indian wars in the late 19th century,

Native Americans as American citizens

Main article:

Americanization of Native Americans

In 1857, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney expressed that since Native Americans were "free and independent people" that they could become U.S. citizens.^[72] Taney asserted that Native Americans could be naturalized and join the "political community" of the United States.^[72]

[Native Americans], without doubt, like the subjects of any other foreign Government, be naturalized by the authority of Congress, and become citizens of a State, and of the United States; and if an individual should leave his nation or tribe, and take up his abode among the white population, he would be entitled to all the rights and privileges which would belong to an emigrant from any other foreign people.

— Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, 1857, What was Taney thinking? American Indian Citizenship in the era of Dred Scott, Frederick e. Hoxie, April 2007.^[72]

U.S. citizenship

On June 2, 1924 U.S.

Under article XIV of that treaty, any Choctaw who elected not to move with the Choctaw Nation could become an American citizen when he registered and if he stayed on designated lands for five years after treaty ratification. Through the years, Native Americans became U.S. citizens by:

1. Treaty provision (as with the Mississippi Choctaw)
2. Registration and land allotment under the Dawes Act of February 8, 1887
3. Issuance of Patent in Fee Simple
4. Adopting Habits of Civilized Life
5. Minor Children
6. Citizenship by Birth
7. Becoming Soldiers and Sailors in the U.S. Armed Forces
8. Marriage to a U.S. citizen
9. Special Act of Congress.

The Choctaws would ultimately form a territory by themselves, which should be taken under the care of the general government; or that they should become citizens of the State of Mississippi, and thus citizens of the United States.

— -Cherokee Phoenix, and Indians' Advocate, Vol. II, No. 37., 1829.^[77]

American Indians today in the U.S. have all the rights guaranteed in the

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That all noncitizen Native Americans born within the territorial limits of the United States be, and they are hereby, declared to be citizens of the United States: Provided, That the granting of such citizenship shall not in any manner impair or otherwise affect the right of any Native American to tribal or other property.

— Indian Citizenship Act of 1924

American expansion justification

Columbia, painted in 1872 by John Gast

In July 1845, the New York newspaper editor John L. O’Sullivan coined the phrase “Manifest Destiny,” to explain how the "design of Providence" supported the territorial expansion of the United States.

).

What a prodigious growth this English race, especially the American branch of it, is having! How soon will it subdue and occupy all the wild parts of this continent and of the islands adjacent. No prophecy, however seemingly extravagant, as to future achievements in this way [is] likely to equal the reality.

— Rutherford Birchard Hayes, U.S. President, January 1, 1857, Personal Diary.[80]

The age of Manifest Destiny, which came to be known as "

]

Indian Appropriations Act of 1871

In 1871 Congress added a rider to the Indian Appropriations Act ending United States recognition of additional Native American tribes or independent nations, and prohibiting additional treaties.

That hereafter no Indian nation or tribe within the territory of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty: Provided, further, that nothing herein contained shall be construed to invalidate or impair the obligation of any treaty heretofore lawfully made and ratified with any such Indian nation or tribe.

— Indian Appropriations Act of 1871[81]

Resistance

U.S. government authorities entered into numerous treaties during this period but later violated many for various reasons. Other treaties were considered "living" documents whose terms could be altered. Major conflicts east of the Mississippi River include the

(1791) was the worst U.S. Army defeat by Native Americans in U.S. history.

Native American Nations west of the Mississippi were numerous and were the last to submit to U.S. authority. Conflicts generally known as "

These conflicts were catalysts to the decline of dominant Native American culture.

The Indian [was thought] as less than human and worthy only of extermination. We did shoot down defenseless men, and women and children at places like Camp Grant, Sand Creek, and Wounded Knee. We did feed strychnine to red warriors. We did set whole villages of people out naked to freeze in the iron cold of Montana winters. And we did confine thousands in what amounted to concentration camps.

— The Indian Wars of the West, 1934[84]

Removals and reservations

In the 19th century, the incessant

policy. In theory, relocation was supposed to be voluntary and many Native Americans did remain in the East. In practice, great pressure was put on Native American leaders to sign removal treaties.

The most egregious violation of the stated intention of the removal policy took place under the Treaty of New Echota, which was signed by a dissident faction of Cherokees but not the elected leadership. President Jackson rigidly enforced the treaty, which resulted in the deaths of an estimated 4,000 Cherokees on the Trail of Tears. About 17,000 Cherokees, along with approximately 2,000 enslaved blacks held by Cherokees, were removed from their homes.^[85]

Tribes were generally located to reservations where they could more easily be separated from traditional life and pushed into European-American society. Some southern states additionally enacted laws in the 19th century forbidding non-Native American settlement on Native American lands, with the intention to prevent sympathetic white missionaries from aiding the scattered Native American resistance.^[86]

Native American slavery

Traditions of Native American slavery

The majority of Native American tribes did practice some form of slavery before the European introduction of African slavery into North America, but none exploited slave labor on a large scale. In addition, Native Americans did not buy and sell captives in the pre-colonial era, although they sometimes exchanged enslaved individuals with other tribes in peace gestures or in exchange for their own members. "Slave" may not be an accurate term for their system of using captives.^[87]

The conditions of enslaved Native Americans varied among the tribes. In many cases, young enslaved captives were adopted into the tribes to replace warriors killed during warfare or by disease. Other tribes practiced debt slavery or imposed slavery on tribal members who had committed crimes; but, this status was only temporary as the enslaved worked off their obligations to the tribal society.^[87]

Among some

European enslavement

When Europeans arrived as

As slavery became a racial caste, the Virginia General Assembly defined some terms in 1705:

All servants imported and brought into the Country... who were not Christians in their native Country... shall be accounted and be slaves. All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion ... shall be held to be real estate. If any slave resists his master ... correcting such slave, and shall happen to be killed in such correction ... the master shall be free of all punishment ... as if such accident never happened.

— Virginia General Assembly declaration, 1705^[90]

The slave trade of Native Americans lasted only until around 1730, and it gave rise to a series of devastating wars among the tribes, including the

Native American women were at risk for rape whether they were enslaved or not; many southern communities had a disproportionate number of men in the early colonial years and they turned to Native women for sexual relationships.[91] Both Native American and African enslaved women suffered rape and sexual harassment by male slaveholders and other white men.^[91]

Native American adoption of African slavery

Native Americans resisted Anglo-American encroachment on their lands and maintained cultural ways. Native Americans interacted with enslaved Africans and African Americans on many levels. Over time all the cultures interracted. Native Americans began slowly to adopt white culture.^[92] Native Americans shared some experiences with Africans, especially during the period when both were enslaved.^[93]

The five civilized tribes tried to gain power by owning slaves, as they assimilated some other European-American ways. Among the slave-owning families of the Cherokee, 78% claimed some white ancestry. The nature of the interactions among the peoples depended upon the historical character of the Native American groups, the enslaved people, and the European slaveholders. Native Americans often assisted runaway slaves. They also sold Africans to whites, trading them like so many blankets or horses.^[87]

While Native Americans might treat enslaved people as brutally as Europeans did, most Native American masters rejected the worst features of southern white bondage (

Wars

King Philip's War

King Philip's War sometimes called Metacom's War or Metacom's Rebellion, was an armed conflict between Native American inhabitants of present-day southern New England and English colonists and their Native American allies from 1675–1676. It continued in northern New England (primarily on the Maine frontier) even after King Philip was killed, until a treaty was signed at Casco Bay in April 1678.^{[citation needed]} According to a combined estimate of loss of life in Schultz and Tougias' "King Philip's War, The History and Legacy of America's Forgotten Conflict" (based on sources from the Department of Defense, the Bureau of Census, and the work of Colonial historian Francis Jennings), 800 out of 52,000 English colonists of New England (1 out of every 65) and 3,000 out of 20,000 natives (3 out of every 20) lost their lives due to the war, which makes it proportionately one of the bloodiest and costliest in the history of America.^{[citation needed]} More than half of New England's ninety towns were assaulted by Native American warriors. One in ten soldiers on both sides were wounded or killed.^[95]

The war is named after the main leader of the Native American side, Metacomet, Metacom, or Pometacom, known to the English as "King Philip." He was the last Massasoit (Great Leader) of the Pokanoket Tribe/Pokanoket Federation & Wampanoag Nation. Upon their loss to the Colonists and the attempted genocide of the Pokanoket Tribe and Royal Line, many managed to flee to the North to continue their fight against the British (Massachusetts Bay Colony) by joining with the Abanaki Tribes and Wabanaki Federation.^{[citation needed]}

Civil War

Many Native Americans served in the military during the Civil War.,^[97] the vast majority of whom siding with the Union. By fighting with the whites, Native Americans hoped to gain favor with the prevailing government by supporting the war effort.^[97][98] They also believed war service might mean an end to discrimination and relocation from ancestral lands to western territories.^[97] While the war raged and African Americans were proclaimed free, the U.S. government continued its policies of assimilation, submission, removal, or extermination of Native Americans.^[97]

General

Spanish–American War

The Spanish–American War was an armed military conflict between Spain and the United States that took place between April and August 1898, over the issues of the Occupation of Cuba, Philippines and Puerto Rico. Theodore Roosevelt actively encouraged intervention in Cuba. Roosevelt worked with Leonard Wood in convincing the Army to raise an all-volunteer regiment, the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry. The "Rough Riders" was the name bestowed on the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry and the only regiment to see action. Recruiters gathered a diverse bunch of men consisting of cowboys, gold or mining prospectors, hunters, gamblers, and Native Americans. There were sixty Native Americans who served as "Rough Riders."^[99]

World War II

Navajo, Pima, Pawnee

and other Native American troops.

Some 44,000 Native Americans served in the

into the military like other American males. Their fellow soldiers often held them in high esteem, in part since the legend of the tough Native American warrior had become a part of the fabric of American historical legend. White servicemen sometimes showed a lighthearted respect toward Native American comrades by calling them "chief."

The resulting increase in contact with the world outside of the reservation system brought profound changes to Native American culture. "The war," said the U.S. Indian commissioner in 1945, "caused the greatest disruption of Native life since the beginning of the reservation era", affecting the habits, views, and economic well-being of tribal members.

cryptologically

very simple, was never cracked by the Japanese.

Contemporary issues

In 1975 the

was passed, marking the culmination of 15 years of policy changes. Related to Indian activism, the Civil Rights Movement and community development aspects of social programs of the 1960s, the Act recognized the need of Native Americans for self-determination. It marked the U.S. government's turn away from the policy of termination; the U.S. government encouraged Native Americans' efforts at self government and determining their futures.

According to 2003 United States Census Bureau estimates, a little over one third of the 2,786,652 Native Americans in the United States live in three states: California at 413,382, Arizona at 294,137 and Oklahoma at 279,559.^[102]

Native American struggles amid poverty to maintain life on the reservation or in larger society have resulted in a variety of health issues, some related to nutrition and health practices. The community suffers a disproportionately high rate of alcoholism.^[103] Agencies working with Native American communities are trying better to respect their traditions and integrate benefits of Western medicine within their own cultural practices.

"It has long been recognized that Native Americans are dying of diabetes, alcoholism, tuberculosis, suicide, and other health conditions at shocking rates. Beyond disturbingly high mortality rates, Native Americans also suffer a significantly lower health status and disproportionate rates of disease compared with all other Americans."

— The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, September 2004 ^[104]

In the early 21st century, Native American communities remain an enduring fixture on the United States landscape, in the American economy, and in the lives of Native Americans. Communities have consistently formed governments that administer services like firefighting, natural resource management, and law enforcement. Most Native American communities have established court systems to adjudicate matters related to local ordinances, and most also look to various forms of moral and social authority vested in traditional affiliations within the community. To address the housing needs of Native Americans, Congress passed the Native American Housing and Self Determination Act (NAHASDA) in 1996. This legislation replaced public housing, and other 1937 Housing Act programs directed towards Indian Housing Authorities, with a block grant program directed towards Tribes.

Jurisprudence

There are 562

Many Native Americans and advocates of Native American rights point out that the U.S. Federal government's claim to recognize the "sovereignty" of Native American peoples falls short, given that the U.S. still wishes to govern Native American peoples and treat them as subject to U.S. law. True respect for Native American sovereignty, according to such advocates, would require the United States federal government to deal with Native American peoples in the same manner as any other sovereign nation, handling matters related to relations with Native Americans through the Secretary of State, rather than the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Bureau of Indian Affairs reports on its website that its "responsibility is the administration and management of 55,700,000 acres (225,000 km²) of land held in trust by the United States for American Indians, Indian tribes, and Alaska Natives."^[106] Many Native Americans and advocates of Native American rights believe that it is condescending for such lands to be considered "held in trust" and regulated in any fashion by a foreign power, whether the U.S. Federal Government, Canada, or any other non-Native American authority.

Forced termination is wrong, in my judgment, for a number of reasons. First, the premises on which it rests are wrong ... The second reason for rejecting forced termination is that the practical results have been clearly harmful in the few instances in which termination actually has been tried.... The third argument I would make against forced termination concerns the effect it has had upon the overwhelming majority of tribes which still enjoy a special relationship with the Federal government ... The recommendations of this administration represent an historic step forward in Indian policy. We are proposing to break sharply with past approaches to Indian problems.

— President Richard Nixon, Special Message on Indian Affairs, July 8, 1970.^[107]

As of 2000, the largest tribes in the U.S. by population were

In addition, there are a number of tribes that are

recognized by individual states

, but not by the federal government. The rights and benefits associated with state recognition vary from state to state.

Some tribal nations have been unable to establish their heritage and obtain federal recognition. The Muwekma Ohlone of the San Francisco bay area are pursuing litigation in the federal court system to establish recognition.^[109] Many of the smaller eastern tribes have been trying to gain official recognition of their tribal status. The recognition confers some benefits, including the right to label arts and crafts as Native American and permission to apply for grants that are specifically reserved for Native Americans. But gaining recognition as a tribe is extremely difficult; to be established as a tribal group, members have to submit extensive genealogical proof of tribal descent.

In July 2000 the

In the state of

To achieve federal recognition and its benefits, tribes must prove their continuous existence since 1900. The federal government has maintained this requirement, in part because through participation on councils and committees, federally recognized tribes have been adamant about groups' satisfying the same requirements as they did.[115]

Native Americans UN Human Rights Exclusion

On September 13, 2007 the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples after nearly 25 years of discussion. Indigenous representatives played a key role in the development of this Declaration. With an overwhelming majority of 143 votes in favor, only 4 negative votes cast (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, United States). The four states that voted against – all with historically oppressed and disenfranchised small indigenous populations far outnumbered by settler populations^[117]– continued to express serious reservations about the final text of the Declaration as placed before the General Assembly. Two of the four opposing countries, Australia and New Zealand, have since then changed their vote in favor of the Declaration.

Speaking for the United States mission to the UN, spokesman Benjamin Chang, who was staff under Richard Grenell, said, "What was done today is not clear. The way it stands now is subject to multiple interpretations and doesn't establish a clear universal principle."^[118] The U.S. mission also issued a floor document, "Observations of the United States with respect to the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples", setting out its objections to the Declaration. Most of these are based on the same points as the three other countries' rejections but, in addition, the United States drew attention to the Declaration's failure to provide a clear definition of exactly whom the term "indigenous peoples" is intended to cover.^[119] In December 2010, President Obama declared that the United States would sign the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.^[120]

Societal discrimination, racism and conflicts

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Perhaps because the most well-known Native Americans live on reservations relatively isolated from major population centers, universities have conducted relatively little public opinion research on attitudes toward them among the general public. In 2007 the non-partisan Public Agenda organization conducted a focus group study. Most non-Native Americans admitted they rarely encountered Native Americans in their daily lives. While sympathetic toward Native Americans and expressing regret over the past, most people had only a vague understanding of the problems facing Native Americans today. For their part, Native Americans told researchers that they believed they continued to face prejudice and mistreatment in the broader society.^[121]

He is ignoble—base and treacherous, and hateful in every way. Not even imminent death can startle him into a spasm of virtue. The ruling trait of all savages is a greedy and consuming selfishness, and in our Noble Red Man it is found in its amplest development. His heart is a cesspool of falsehood, of treachery, and of low and devilish instincts ... The scum of the earth!

— Mark Twain, 1870, The Noble Red Man (a satire on James Fenimore Cooper's portrayals) ^[122]

Conflicts between the federal government and Native Americans occasionally erupt into violence. Perhaps the more notable late 20th century event was the

LeCompte also endured taunting on the battlefield. "They ridiculed him and called him a 'drunken Indian.' They said, 'Hey, dude, you look just like a haji—you'd better run.' They call the Arabs 'haji.' I mean, it's one thing to worry for your life, but then to have to worry about friendly fire because you don't know who in the hell will shoot you?

— Tammie LeCompte, May 25, 2007, "Soldier highlights problems in U.S. Army"[125]

In 2004, Senator Sam Brownback (Republican of Kansas) introduced a joint resolution (Senate Joint Resolution 37) to “offer an apology to all Native Peoples on behalf of the United States” for past “ill-conceived policies” by the United States Government regarding Indian Tribes.^[126] Buried in the 2010 defense appropriations bill, President Barack Obama signed the legislation into law in 2009.^[127]

In 2007, AIM activist John Graham was extradited from Canada to the U.S. to stand trial for killing N.S. Mimaq in 1975. The Native American woman activist was killed years after the Wounded Knee standoff, allegedly for having been an FBI informant at the time.^[128][129]

In a 2010 dispute over cigarette taxes between the Seneca Nation and New York City's

Native American mascots in sports

Chief Osceola, the Florida State University

mascot

The use of Native American mascots in sports has become a contentious issue in the

which?

] continue to do so. In the Bay Area of California a number of High Schools such as Tomales Bay High and Sequoia High have retired their Mascots.

(Trudie Lamb Richmond doesn't) know what to say when kids argue, 'I don't care what you say, we are honoring you. We are keeping our Indian.' ... What if it were 'our black' or 'our Hispanic'?

— -Amy D'orio quoting Trudie Lamb Richmond, March 1996, "Indian Chief Is Mascot No More"[132]

In August 2005, the

, considered controversial by some.

"Could you imagine people mocking African Americans in black face at a game?" he said. "Yet go to a game where there is a team with an Indian name and you will see fans with war paint on their faces. Is this not the equivalent to black face?"

— "Native American Mascots Big Issue in College Sports",Teaching Tolerance, May 9, 2001^[136]

Depictions by Europeans and Americans

Roanoke

Indians

Silver Certificate

, 1899

Native Americans have been depicted by

made watercolors and engravings of the people native to the southeastern states. John White’s images were, for the most part, faithful likenesses of the people he observed.

Later the artist

used White’s original watercolors to make a book of engravings entitled, A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia. In his book, de Bry often altered the poses and features of White’s figures to make them appear more European. During the period when White and de Bry were working, when Europeans were first coming into contact with native Americans, Europeans were greatly interested in native American cultures. Their curiosity created demand for a book like de Bry’s.

A number of 19th and 20th century American and Canadian painters, often motivated by a desire to document and preserve Native culture, specialized in Native American subjects. Among the most prominent of these were

.

During the construction of the

sought to express a more balanced image of Native Americans.

During this time there were writers of fiction who were informed about Native American culture and wrote about it with sympathy. One such writer was Marah Ellis Ryan.

In the 20th century, early portrayals of Native Americans in

(1976) depicted Native Americans in minor supporting roles.

In addition to overtly negative depictions, Native people on U.S. television have also been relegated to secondary, subordinate roles. During the years of the series

Like the 1992 remake of The Last of the Mohicans and Geronimo: An American Legend (1993), Dances with Wolves employed a number of Native American actors, and made some effort to portray Indigenous languages.

In 2004, Co-Producer Guy Perrotta presented the film Mystic Voices: The Story of the Pequot War (2004), a television documentary on the first major war between colonists and Native peoples in the Americas. Perrotta and Charles Clemmons intended to increase public understanding of the significance of this early event. They believed it had significance not only for northeastern Native Peoples and descendants of English and Dutch colonists, but for all Americans today. The producers wanted to make the documentary as historically accurate and as unbiased as possible. They invited a broadly based Advisory Board, and used scholars, Native Americans, and descendants of the colonists to help tell the story. They elicited personal and often passionate viewpoints from contemporary Americans. The production portrayed the conflict as a struggle between different value systems that included not only the Pequots, but a number of Native American tribes, most of which allied with the English. It not only presents facts, but also seeks to help the viewer better understand the people who fought the War.

In 2009,

and the resurgence in modern Native cultures afterward.

Terminology differences

Further information: [[:Native American name controversy]]

Common usage in the United States

Native Americans are more commonly known as Indians or American Indians, and have been known as Aboriginal Americans, Amerindians, Amerinds, Colored,^[97][139] First Americans, Native Indians, Indigenous, Original Americans, Red Indians, Redskins or Red Men. The term Native American was originally introduced in the

Indian Americans

or Asian Indians.

Hochunk weaver from Indiana

Criticism of the neologism Native American, however, comes from diverse sources. Many American Indians have misgivings about the term Native American. Russell Means, an American Indian activist, opposes the term Native American because he believes it was imposed by the government without the consent of American Indians. He has also argued that this use of the word Indian derives not from a confusion with India but from a Spanish expression En Dio, meaning "in God".^[140] Furthermore, some American Indians^[who?] question the term Native American because, they argue, it serves to ease the conscience of "white America" with regard to past injustices done to American Indians by effectively eliminating "Indians" from the present.^[141] Still others (both Indians and non-Indians)^[who?] argue that Native American is problematic because "native of" literally means "born in," so any person born in the Americas could be considered "native". However, very often the compound "Native American" will be capitalized in order to differentiate this intended meaning from others. Likewise, "native" (small 'n') can be further qualified by formulations such as "native-born" when the intended meaning is only to indicate place of birth or origin.

A 1995 U.S. Census Bureau survey found that more Native Americans in the United States preferred American Indian to Native American.^[142] Nonetheless, most American Indians are comfortable with Indian, American Indian, and Native American, and the terms are often used interchangeably.^[143] The traditional term is reflected in the name chosen for the National Museum of the American Indian, which opened in 2004 on the Mall in Washington, D.C..

Recently, the U.S. Census Bureau has introduced the "Asian-Indian" category to avoid ambiguity.

Gambling industry

Gambling has become a leading industry. Casinos operated by many Native American governments in the United States are creating a stream of gambling revenue that some communities are beginning to use as leverage to build diversified economies. Native American communities have waged and prevailed in legal battles to assure recognition of rights to self-determination and to use of natural resources. Some of those rights, known as treaty rights, are enumerated in early treaties signed with the young United States government. Tribal sovereignty has become a cornerstone of American jurisprudence, and at least on the surface, in national legislative policies. Although many Native American tribes have casinos, the impact of Native American gaming is widely debated. Some tribes, such as the Winnemem Wintu of Redding, California, feel that casinos and their proceeds destroy culture from the inside out. These tribes refuse to participate in the gambling industry.

Society, language, and culture

Ethno-linguistic classification

Far from forming a single ethnic group, Native Americans were divided into several hundred ethno-linguistic groups, most of them grouped into the

. Demonstrating genetic relationships has proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America.

The indigenous peoples of North America can be classified as belonging to a number of large cultural areas:

• Alaska Natives
  • Arctic:
    Eskimo-Aleut
  • Subarctic: Northern Athabaskan
• Western United States
  • Yok-Utian, Pacific Coast Athabaskan, Coast Miwok, Yurok, Palaihnihan, Chumashan, Uto-Aztecan
  • Interior Salish, Plateau Penutian
  • Great Basin tribes: Uto-Aztecan
  • Pacific Northwest Coast: Pacific Coast Athabaskan, Coast Salish
  • Yuman, Southern Athabaskan
• Central United States
  • Plains Indians: Siouan, Plains Algonquian, Southern Athabaskan
• Eastern United States
  • Northeastern Woodlands tribes: Iroquoian, Central Algonquian, Eastern Algonquian
  • Southeastern tribes: Muskogean, Siouan, Catawban, Iroquoian

Of the surviving languages, Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of

and northern Mexico (with one outlier in the Plains). Another area of considerable diversity appears to have been the Southeast; however, many of these languages became extinct from European contact and as a result they are, for the most part, absent from the historical record.

Cultural aspects

Though cultural features, language, clothing, and customs vary enormously from one tribe to another, there are certain elements which are encountered frequently and shared by many tribes.

Early

to help the human population flourish.

Large mammals like

) In addition, horses became such a valuable, central element of Native lives that they were counted as a measure of wealth.

Organization

Gens structure

Early European American scholars described the Native Americans as having a society dominated by

(in the Roman model) before tribes were formed. There were some common characteristics:

• The right to elect its sachem and chiefs.
• The right to depose its sachem and chiefs.
• The obligation not to marry in the gens.
• Mutual rights of inheritance of the property of deceased members.
• Reciprocal obligations of help, defense, and redress of injuries.
• The right to bestow names on its members.
• The right to adopt strangers into the gens.
• Common religious rights, query.
• A common burial place.
• A council of the gens.^[146]

Tribal structure

Subdivision and differentiation took place between various groups. Upwards of forty stock languages developed in North America, with each independent tribe speaking a dialect of one of those languages. Some functions and attributes of tribes are:

Diné painter from Arizona

• The possession of the gentes.
• The right to depose these sachems and chiefs.
• The possession of a religious faith and worship.
• A supreme government consisting of a council of chiefs.
• A head-chief of the tribe in some instances.[146]

Society and art

The Iroquois, living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called wampum that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as a medium of exchange and a unit of measure. The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries.^[147]

dancers wore elaborately painted and decorated masks as they ritually impersonated various ancestral spirits. Sculpture was not highly developed, but carved stone and wood fetishes were made for religious use. Superior weaving, embroidered decorations, and rich dyes characterized the textile arts. Both turquoise and shell jewelry were created, as were high-quality pottery and formalized pictorial arts.

. The colors—made from sand, charcoal, cornmeal, and pollen—depicted specific spirits. These vivid, intricate, and colorful sand creations were erased at the end of the ceremony.

Agriculture

Further information:

Native American cuisine

An early crop the Native Americans grew was

.

Agriculture in the southwest started around 4,000 years ago when traders brought cultigens from Mexico. Due to the varying climate, some ingenuity was needed for agriculture to be successful. The climate in the southwest ranged from cool, moist mountains regions, to dry, sandy soil in the desert. Some innovations of the time included irrigation to bring water into the dry regions and the selection of seed based on the traits of the growing plants that bore them. In the southwest, they grew beans that were self-supported, much like the way they are grown today.

In the east, however, they were planted right by corn in order for the vines to be able to "climb" the cornstalks. The most important crop the Native Americans raised was maize. It was first started in Mesoamerica and spread north. About 2,000 years ago it reached eastern America. This crop was important to the Native Americans because it was part of their everyday diet; it could be stored in underground pits during the winter, and no part of it was wasted. The husk was made into art crafts, and the cob was used as fuel for fires. By 800 AD the Native Americans had established three main crops — beans, squash, and corn — called the three sisters.

The agriculture gender roles of the Native Americans varied from region to region. In the southwest area, men prepared the soil with hoes. The women were in charge of planting, weeding, and harvesting the crops. In most other regions, the women were in charge of doing everything, including clearing the land. Clearing the land was an immense chore since the Native Americans rotated fields frequently. There is a tradition that Squanto showed the Pilgrims in New England how to put fish in fields to act like a fertilizer, but the truth of this story is debated. Native Americans did plant beans next to corn; the beans would replace the nitrogen which the corn took from the ground, as well as using corn stalks for support for climbing. Native Americans used controlled fires to burn weeds and clear fields; this would put nutrients back into the ground. If this did not work, they would simply abandon the field to let it be fallow, and find a new spot for cultivation.

Europeans in the eastern part of the continent observed that Natives cleared large areas for cropland. Their fields in New England sometimes covered hundreds of acres. Colonists in Virginia noted thousands of acres under cultivation by Native Americans.^[148]

Native Americans commonly used tools such as the hoe, maul, and dibber. The hoe was the main tool used to till the land and prepare it for planting; then it was used for weeding. The first versions were made out of wood and stone. When the settlers brought iron, Native Americans switched to iron hoes and hatchets. The dibber was a digging stick, used to plant the seed. Once the plants were harvested, women prepared the produce for eating. They used the maul to grind the corn into mash. It was cooked and eaten that way or baked as corn bread.^[149]

Religion

Traditional Native American ceremonies are still practiced by many tribes and bands, and the older theological belief systems are still held by many of the "traditional" people.^[

are also common.

The

Ojibwa

(Chippewa) and related tribes.

Another significant religious body among Native peoples is known as the

Saint Francis Cathedral.^[150] Native American-Catholic syncretism is also found elsewhere in the United States. (e.g., the National Kateri Tekakwitha Shrine in Fonda, New York and the National Shrine of the North American Martyrs in Auriesville, New York

).

The

religious or spiritual use. The law does not allow Native Americans to give eagle

feathers to non-Native Americans.

Gender roles

Main article:

Gender roles in First Nations and Native American tribes

Most Native American tribes had traditional

different systems were in use. One example is the Cherokee custom of wives owning the family property. Men hunted, traded and made war, while women gathered plants, cared for the young and the elderly, fashioned clothing and instruments and cured meat. The cradleboard was used by mothers to carry their baby while working or traveling.^[151] In some (but not all) tribes, two-spirit individuals served mixed or third gender

gender roles.

At least several dozen tribes allowed polygyny to sisters, with procedural and economic limits.^[146]

Apart from making home, women had many tasks that were essential for the survival of the tribes. They made weapons and tools, took care of the roofs of their homes and often helped their men hunt bison.^[152] In some of the Plains Indian tribes there reportedly were medicine women who gathered herbs and cured the ill.^[153]

In some of these tribes such as the Sioux girls were also encouraged to learn to ride, hunt and fight.^[154] Though fighting was mostly left to the boys and men, there had been cases of women fighting alongside them, especially when the existence of the tribe was threatened.^[155]

Sports

Native American leisure time led to competitive individual and team sports. Jim Thorpe, Notah Begay III, Jacoby Ellsbury, and Billy Mills are well known professional athletes.

Team based

Native American ball sports, sometimes referred to as lacrosse, stickball, or baggataway, was often used to settle disputes rather than going to war which was a civil way to settle potential conflict. The Choctaw called it ISITOBOLI ("Little Brother of War");^[156] the Onondaga name was DEHUNTSHIGWA'ES ("men hit a rounded object"). There are three basic versions classifed as Great Lakes, Iroquoian, and Southern.^[157] The game is played with one or two rackets/sticks and one ball. The object of the game is to land the ball on the opposing team's goal (either a single post or net) to score and prevent the opposing team from scoring on your goal. The game involves as few as twenty or as many as 300 players with no height or weight restrictions and no protective gear. The goals could be from a few hundred feet apart to a few miles; in Lacrosse the field is 110 yards. A Jesuit priest^[who?] referenced stickball in 1729, and George Catlin painted the subject.

Individual based

Chunkey was a game that consisted of a stone shaped disk that was about 1–2 inches in diameter. The disk was thrown down a 200-foot (61 m) corridor so that it could roll past the players at great speed. The disk would roll down the corridor, and players would throw wooden shafts at the moving disk. The object of the game was to strike the disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it.

U.S. Olympics

Gustaf V of Sweden

Dwight Eisenhower injured his knee while trying to tackle the young Thorpe. In a 1961 speech, Eisenhower recalled Thorpe: "Here and there, there are some people who are supremely endowed. My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe. He never practiced in his life, and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever saw."^[158]

In the 1912 Olympics, Thorpe could run the 100-yard dash in 10 seconds flat, the 220 in 21.8 seconds, the 440 in 51.8 seconds, the 880 in 1:57, the mile in 4:35, the 120-yard high hurdles in 15 seconds, and the 220-yard low hurdles in 24 seconds.[159] He could long jump 23 ft 6 in and high-jump 6 ft 5 in.^[159] He could pole vault 11 feet (3.4 m), put the shot 47 ft 9 in, throw the javelin 163 feet (50 m), and throw the discus 136 feet.^[159] Thorpe entered the U.S. Olympic trials for both the pentathlon and the decathlon.

Billy Mills, a Lakota and USMC officer, won the gold medal in the 10,000 meter run at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. He was the only American ever to win the Olympic gold in this event. An unknown prior to the Olympics, Mills finished second in the U.S. Olympic trials.

Innsbruck, Austria.
Six years later at the 1970 World Championships, Kidd won the gold medal in the combined

event and took the bronze medal in the slalom.

Music and art

Main articles:

Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas

Jemez Pueblo from New Mexico

Traditional

de Soto

). The tuning of these flutes is not precise and depends on the length of the wood used and the hand span of the intended player, but the finger holes are most often around a whole step apart and, at least in Northern California, a flute was not used if it turned out to have an interval close to a half step.

Performers with Native American parentage have occasionally appeared in American popular music, such as Robbie Robertson (The Band), Rita Coolidge, Wayne Newton, Gene Clark, Buffy Sainte-Marie, Blackfoot, Tori Amos, Redbone, and CocoRosie. Some, such as John Trudell, have used music to comment on life in Native America, and others, such as R. Carlos Nakai integrate traditional sounds with modern sounds in instrumental recordings. A variety of small and medium-sized recording companies offer an abundance of recent music by Native American performers young and old, ranging from pow-wow drum music to hard-driving rock-and-roll and rap.

The most widely practiced public musical form among Native Americans in the United States is that of the pow-wow. At

pow-wows, such as the annual Gathering of Nations in Albuquerque, New Mexico, members of drum groups sit in a circle around a large drum. Drum groups play in unison while they sing in a native language and dancers in colorful regalia dance clockwise around the drum groups in the center. Familiar pow-wow songs include honor songs, intertribal songs, crow-hops, sneak-up songs, grass-dances, two-steps, welcome songs, going-home songs, and war songs. Most indigenous communities in the United States also maintain traditional songs and ceremonies, some of which are shared and practiced exclusively within the community.^[160]

Native American art comprises a major category in the world art collection. Native American contributions include

basketry, and carvings. Franklin Gritts, was a Cherokee artist, who taught students from many tribes at Haskell Institute (now Haskell Indian Nations University

) in the 1940s, the Golden Age of Native American painters.

The integrity of certain Native American artworks is now protected by an act of Congress that prohibits representation of art as Native American when it is not the product of an enrolled Native American artist.

Economy

The

droughts

.

In the early years, as these native peoples encountered European explorers and settlers and engaged in trade, they exchanged food, crafts, and furs for blankets, iron and steel implements, horses, trinkets, firearms, and alcoholic beverages.

Barriers to economic development

Makah

Native Americans

Today, other than tribes successfully running casinos, many tribes struggle. There are an estimated 2.1 million Native Americans, and they are the most impoverished of all ethnic groups. According to the

U.S. Small Business Administration, only 1% of Native Americans own and operate a business.^[162] Native Americans rank at the bottom of nearly every social statistic: highest teen suicide rate of all minorities at 18.5 per 100,000, highest rate of teen pregnancy, highest high school drop out rate at 54%, lowest per capita income, and unemployment

rates between 50% to 90%.

The barriers to

Stephen Cornell^[164] of the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development at Harvard University, in their classic report: What Can Tribes Do? Strategies and Institutions in American Indian Economic Development,^[165]

are as follows (incomplete list, see full Kalt & Cornell report):

• Lack of access to capital.
• Lack of human capital (education, skills, technical expertise) and the means to develop it.
• Reservations lack effective planning.
• Reservations are poor in natural resources.
• Reservations have natural resources, but lack sufficient control over them.
• Reservations are disadvantaged by their distance from markets and the high costs of transportation.
• Tribes cannot persuade investors to locate on reservations because of intense competition from non-Native American communities.
• The Bureau of Indian Affairs is inept, corrupt, and/or uninterested in reservation development.
• Tribal politicians and bureaucrats are inept or corrupt.
• On-reservation factionalism destroys stability in tribal decisions.
• The instability of tribal government keeps outsiders from investing.
• Entrepreneurial skills and experience are scarce.
• Tribal cultures get in the way.

One of the major barriers for overcoming the economic strife is the lack of entrepreneurial knowledge and experience across

Indian reservations. “A general lack of education and experience about business is a significant challenge to prospective entrepreneurs,” also says another report on Native American entrepreneurship by the Northwest Area Foundation in 2004. “Native American communities that lack entrepreneurial traditions and recent experiences typically do not provide the support that entrepreneurs need to thrive. Consequently, experiential entrepreneurship education needs to be embedded into school curricula and after-school and other community activities. This would allow students to learn the essential elements of entrepreneurship from a young age and encourage them to apply these elements throughout life.”.^[166] One publication devoted to addressing these issues is Rez Biz

magazine.

Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans

Interracial relations between Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans is a complex issue that has been mostly neglected with "few in-depth studies on interracial relationships".

Mayan noblewoman. Another is the case of (Hernán Cortés) and his mistress La Malinche, who gave birth to another of the first multi-racial people in the Americas.^[169]

Native Americans and assimilation acceptance with Europeans

European impact was immediate, widespread, and profound—more than any other race that had contact with Native Americans during the early years of colonization and nationhood. Europeans living among Native Americans were often called "white indians". They "lived in native communities for years, learned native languages fluently, attended native councils, and often fought alongside their native companions."[170]

Early contact was often charged with tension and emotion, but also had moments of friendship, cooperation, and intimacy.^[171] Marriages took place in English, Spanish, and French colonies between both Native American and European men and women. In 1528, Isabel de Moctezuma, an heir of Moctezuma II, was married to Alonso de Grado, a Spanish Conquistador, and later after his death to Juan Cano de Saavedra. Together they had five children. Much later, on April 5, 1614, Pocahontas married Englishman John Rolfe, and they had a child called Thomas Rolfe. Also, many heirs of Emperor Moctezuma II were acknowledged by the Spanish crown, who granted them many titles including Duke of Moctezuma de Tultengo.

Intimate relations among Native American and Europeans were widespread, beginning with the French and Spanish explorers and trappers. For instance, in the early 19th century, the Native American woman Sacagawea, who would help translate for the Lewis and Clark Expedition, was married to French trapper Toussaint Charbonneau. They had a son named Jean Baptiste Charbonneau. This was the most typical pattern among the traders and trappers.

Carl Wimar

, 1855

Many settlers feared Native Americans because they were different.^[171] Their ways seemed savage to whites, and they were suspicious of a culture they did not understand.^[171] A Native American author Andrew J. Blackbird in 1897, found that white settlers introduced some immoralities into Native American tribes.^[171]

He wrote in his book, History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan,

"The Ottawas and Chippewas were quite virtuous in their primitive state, as there were no illegitimate children reported in our old traditions. But very lately this evil came to exist among the Ottawas-so lately that the second case among the Ottawas of Arbor Croche is yet living in 1897. And from that time this evil came to be quite frequent, for immorality has been introduced among these people by evil white persons who bring their vices into the tribes."^[171]

The U. S. government had two purposes in mind when making land agreements with Native Americans. First, they wanted to open it up more land for white settlement.^[172] Second, they wanted to ease tensions between whites and Native Americans by forcing Natives to use the land like whites did.^[172] The government had a variety of strategies to accomplish these aims; many treaties required Native Americans to become farmers in order to keep their land.^[172] Government officials often did not translate the documents Native Americans were forced to sign, and native chiefs often had little or no idea what they were signing.^[172]

For a Native American man to marry a white woman he had to get consent of the parents as long as "he can prove to support her as a white woman in a good home".

Elaine Goodale

whom he had met in Dakota Territory when Goodale was social worker and the superintendent of Native American education for the reservations. They had six children together.

Native American and African relations

Further information:

Black Indians

African and Native Americans have interacted for centuries. The earliest record of African and Native American contact occurred in April 1502, when the first Africans were brought to Hispaniola to serve as slaves.^[175]

Sometimes Native Americans resented the presence of African Americans.^[176] In one description the "Catawaba tribe in 1752 showed great anger and bitter resentment when an African American came among them as a trader."^[176] The Cherokee had the strongest color prejudice of all Native Americans to gain favor with Europeans.^[177] The hostility has been attributed to European fears of a unified revolt of Native Americans and African Americans: "Whites sought to convince Native Americans that African Americans worked against their best interests." ^[178] In 1751, South Carolina law stated:

"The carrying of Negroes among the Indians has all along been thought detrimental, as an intimacy ought to be avoided."^[179]

Europeans considered both races inferior and made efforts to make both Native Americans and Africans enemies.^[92] Native Americans were rewarded if they returned escaped slaves, and African Americans were rewarded for fighting in "Indian Wars".^{[92][180][181]}

Kenyan singer and editor from California

"Native Americans, during the transitional period of Africans becoming the primary race enslaved, were enslaved at the same time and shared a common experience of enslavement. They worked together, lived together in communal quarters, produced collective recipes for food, shared herbal remedies, myths and legends, and in the end they intermarried."

Delaware Native Americans were also requested to return runaway slaves however no record of slaves being returned occurred.^[184]

Ads were used to request the return of slaves.

Slave ownership was prevalent among a few Native American tribes, especially in the southeast where the

Creek lived. Though less than 3% of Native Americans owned slaves, bondage practices created destructive divisions among Native Americans.^[94] Among the Cherokee, records show that slave holders in the tribe were largely the children of European men that had showed their children the economics of slavery.^[180] As European expansion increased more African and Native American marriages became more prominent.^[92]

A few historians suggest that most African Americans have Native American heritage

geneticists, a PBS series on African Americans explained that while most African Americans are racially mixed, it is relatively rare that they have Native American ancestry.^[186][187] According to the PBS series, the most common "non-black" mix is English and Scots-Irish.^[186][187] However, the Y-chromosome and mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) testing processes for direct-line male and female ancestors can fail to pick up the heritage of many ancestors. (Some critics thought the PBS series did not sufficiently explain the limitations of DNA testing for assessment of heritage.)^[188] Another study suggests that relatively few Native Americans have African-American heritage.^[189] A study reported in The American Journal of Human Genetics stated, "We analyzed the European genetic contribution to 10 populations of African descent in the United States (Maywood, Illinois; Detroit; New York; Philadelphia; Pittsburgh; Baltimore; Charleston, South Carolina; New Orleans; and Houston) ... mtDNA haplogroups analysis shows no evidence of a significant maternal Amerindian contribution to any of the 10 populations."^[190]

Researchers caution that genetic ancestry DNA testing has limitations and should not be depended on by individuals to answer all their questions about heritage.[188]^[191] Testing cannot distinguish among separate Native American tribes. Nor can it be used alone to assert membership in a tribe.^[192]

Blood Quantum

Main article: Blood quantum laws

Further information:

Cherokee Freedmen Controversy

Intertribal mixing was common among Native American tribes, so individuals could be said to be descended from more than one tribe.

captives into their group to replace members who had been captured or killed in battle. These captives came from rival tribes and later from European settlers. Some tribes also sheltered or adopted white traders and runaway slaves and Native American-owned slaves. Tribes with long trading histories with Europeans show a higher rate of European admixture, reflecting years of intermarriage between European men and Native American women.^[193]

A number of paths to genetic diversity among Native Americans thus existed.

While in recent years some commentators have suggested high rates of admixture between Native Americans and African Americans, genetic genealogists have found lesser frequency. Literary critic and author Henry Louis Gates, Jr. cites experts who argue that only 5% of African Americans have at least 12.5% Native American ancestry (equivalent to one great-grandparent). Of course this means that a greater percentage could have a very small percentage of ancestry, but it also suggests that past estimates of admixture may have been too high.^[195] As some genetic tests assess only direct male or female ancestors, individuals may not discover Native American ancestry from other ancestors. Among an individual's 64 4xgreat-grandparents, direct testing yields DNA evidence of only two.^{[188][191][196]}

In addition to limitations if only direct male and female lines are tested, DNA testing cannot be used for determining tribal membership because it can not distinguish among Native American groups. Native American identity has historically been based on culture, not just biology. The Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism (IPCB) notes that:

"Native American markers" are not found solely among Native Americans. While they occur more frequently among Native Americans they are also found in people in other parts of the world.^[196]

Geneticists also state:

Not all Native Americans have been tested especially with the large number of deaths due to disease such as small pox, it is unlikely that Native Americans only have the genetic markers they have identified, even when their maternal or paternal bloodline does not include a non-Native American.^[188][191]

To receive tribal services, a Native American must belong to, and be certified by, a recognized tribal organization. Each tribal government makes its own rules for citizens or tribal members. The federal government has standards related to services available to certified Native Americans. For instance, federal scholarships for Native Americans require the student to be enrolled in a federally recognized tribe and have at least one-quarter Native American descent (equivalent to one grandparent), attested to by a Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood card. Among tribes, qualification may be based upon a required percentage of Native American "blood", or the "blood quantum" of an individual seeking recognition.

To attain certainty, some tribes have begun requiring genealogical DNA testing, but this is usually related to proving parentage or direct descent from a certified member.^[197] Requirements for tribal membership vary widely by tribe. The Cherokee require documented genealogical descent from a Native American listed on the early 1906 Dawes Rolls. Tribal rules regarding recognition of members who have heritage from multiple tribes are equally diverse and complex.

Tribal membership conflicts have led to a number of legal disputes, court cases, and the formation of activist groups. One example of this are the

historic Cherokee Nation as freed men after the Civil War. The modern Cherokee Nation

, in the early 1980s, excluded them from citizenship —unless individuals can prove descent from a Cherokee Native American (not just freedmen) listed on the Dawes Rolls.

In the 20th century, an increasing number of Caucasian-Americans have seemed more interested in claiming descent from Native Americans. Many people have claimed descent from the Cherokee.[198]

Roman Catholic Church

.

Medical Doctor.^[199][200]

Population

In 2006, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that about 0.8% of the U.S. population was of

Alaska Native

ancestry, based on 2006 estimates:

Alaska – 13.1% 101,352

New Mexico – 9.7% 165,944

South Dakota – 8.6% 60,358

Oklahoma – 6.8% 262,581

Montana – 6.3% 57,225

North Dakota – 5.2% 30,552

Arizona – 4.5% 261,168

Wyoming – 2.2% 10,867

Oregon – 1.8% 45,633

Washington

– 1.5% 104,819

Nevada – 1.2%

Idaho – 1.1%

North Carolina – 1.1%

Utah – 1.1%

Minnesota – 1.0%

Colorado – 0.9%

Kansas – 0.9%

Nebraska – 0.9%

Wisconsin – 0.9%

Arkansas – 0.8%

California – 0.7%

Louisiana – 0.6%

Maine – 0.5%

Michigan – 0.5%

Texas – 0.5%

Alabama – 0.4%

Mississippi – 0.4%

Missouri – 0.4%

Rhode Island – 0.4%

Vermont – 0.4%

Florida – 0.3%

Delaware – 0.3%

Hawaii – 0.3%

Iowa – 0.3%

New York – 0.3%

South Carolina – 0.3%

Tennessee – 0.3%

Georgia – 0.2%

Virginia – 0.2%

Connecticut – 0.2%

Illinois – 0.2%

Indiana – 0.2%

Kentucky – 0.2%

Maryland – 0.2%

Massachusetts – 0.2%

New Hampshire – 0.2%

New Jersey – 0.2%

Ohio – 0.2%

West Virginia – 0.2%

Pennsylvania – 0.1%

District of Columbia

– 0.3%

Puerto Rico – 0.2%

In 2006, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that about less than 1.0% of the U.S. population was of

Pacific Islander

ancestry, based on 2006 estimates:

Hawaii – 8.7

Utah – 0.7

Alaska – 0.6

California – 0.4

Nevada – 0.4

Washington

– 0.4

Arizona – 0.2

Oregon – 0.2

Alabama – 0.1

Arkansas – 0.1

Colorado – 0.1

Florida – 0.1

Idaho – 0.1

Kentucky – 0.1

Maryland – 0.1

Massachusetts – 0.1

Missouri – 0.1

Montana – 0.1

New Mexico – 0.1

North Carolina – 0.1

Oklahoma – 0.1

South Carolina – 0.1

Texas – 0.1

Virginia – 0.1

West Virginia – 0.1

Wyoming – 0.1

Population distribution

by Selected Tribal Grouping:2000^[202]

Tribal grouping	American and Alaska Native alone	American and Alaska Native alone	American Indian and Alaska Native in combination with one or more races	American Indian and Alaska Native in combination with one or more races	American Indian and Alaska Native tribal grouping alone or in any combination1
Tribal grouping	One tribal grouping reported	More than one tribal grouping reported	One tribal grouping reported	More than one tribal grouping reported
Total	2,423,531	52,425	1,585,396	57,949	4,119,301
Apache	57,060	7,917	24,947	6,909	96,833
Blackfeet	27,104	4,358	41,389	12,899	85,750
Cherokee	281,069	18,793	390,902	38,769	729,533
Cheyenne	11,191	1,365	4,655	993	18,204
Chickasaw	20,887	3,014	12,025	2,425	38,351
Chippewa	105,907	2,730	38,635	2,397	149,669
Choctaw	87,349	9,552	50,123	11,750	158,774
Colville	7,833	193	1,308	59	9,393
Comanche	10,120	1,568	6,120	1,568	19,376
Cree	2,488	724	3,577	945	7,734
Creek	40,223	5,495	21,652	3,940	71,310
Crow	9,117	574	2,812	891	13,394
Delaware	8,304	602	6,866	569	16,341
Houma	6,798	79	1,794	42	8,713
Iroquois	45,212	2,318	29,763	3,529	80,822
Kiowa	8,559	1,130	2,119	434	12,242
Latin American Indian	104,354	1,850	73,042	1,694	180,940
Lumbee	51,913	642	4,934	379	57,868
Menominee	7,883	258	1,551	148	9,840
Navajo	269,202	6,789	19,491	2,715	298,197
Osage	7,658	1,354	5,491	1,394	15,897
Ottawa	6,432	623	3,174	448	10,677
Paiute	9,705	1,163	2,315	349	13,532
Pima	8,519	999	1,741	234	11,493
Potawatomi	15,817	592	8,602	584	25,595
Pueblo	59,533	3,527	9,943	1,082	74,085
Puget Sound Salish	11,034	226	3,212	159	14,631
Seminole	12,431	2,982	9,505	2,513	27,431
Shoshone	7,739	714	3,039	534	12,026
Sioux	108,272	4,794	35,179	5,115	153,360
Tohono O’odham	17,466	714	1,748	159	20,087
Ute	7,309	715	1,944	417	10,385
Yakama	8,481	561	1,619	190	10,851
Yaqui	15,224	1,245	5,184	759	22,412
Yuman	7,295	526	1,051	104	8,976
Other specified American Indian tribes	240,521	9,468	100,346	7,323	357,658
American Indian tribe, not specified2	109,644	57	86,173	28	195,902
Alaska Athabascan	14,520	815	3,218	285	18,838
Aleut	11,941	832	3,850	355	16,978
Eskimo	45,919	1,418	6,919	505	54,761
Tlingit-Haida	14,825	1,059	6,047	434	22,365
Other specified Alaska Native tribes	2,552	435	841	145	3,973
Alaska Native ribe, not specified2	6,161	370	2,053	118	8,702
American Indian or Alaska Native tribes, not specified3	511,960	(X)	544,497	(X)	1,056,457

Genetics

Further information:

Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas

neighbour-joining

autosomal relationships.

matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes. Neither recombines, and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material.^[203] Autosomal "atDNA" markers are also used, but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that they overlap significantly.^[204] AtDNA is generally used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry genetic admixture in the entire human genome and related isolated populations.^[204]

The genetic pattern indicates Indigenous Americans experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial-peopling of the

populations.^[205]

Human settlement of the

haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations.^{[210][211][212]} This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations.^[213][214]

See also

• Aboriginal peoples in Canada
• American Indian College Fund
• American Indian elder
• Native Americans in children's literature
• List of company and product names derived from indigenous peoples
• Indian Campaign Medal
• Indian Claims Commission
• Indian massacre
• Indian old field
• Indian Reorganization Act
• Indian Territory
• Inter-Tribal Environmental Council (ITEC)
• List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas
• List of Indian reservations in the United States
• List of Native Americans of the United States
• List of pre-Columbian civilizations
• List of sports team names and mascots derived from indigenous peoples
• List of unrecognized tribes in the United States
• List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas
• Mississippian culture
• Modern social statistics of Native Americans
• Mound builder (people)
• Native American mythology
• Native American pottery
• Native American tribes in Nebraska
• Population history of American indigenous peoples
• Portrayal of Native Americans in Film
• State recognized tribes in the United States
• Treaties of the United States
  (includes Native American treaties)
• Uncontacted peoples

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• Adams, David Wallace. Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875–1928, University Press of Kansas, 1975. ISBN 0-7006-0735-8 (hbk); ISBN 0-7006-0838-9 (pbk).
• Bierhorst, John. A Cry from the Earth: Music of North American Indians. ISBN 0-941270-53-X.
• Deloria, Vine
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• Johnston, Eric F. The Life of the Native American, Atlanta, GA: Tradewinds Press (2003).
• Johnston, Eric. The Life Of the Native. Philadelphia, PA: E.C. Biddle, etc. 1836–44. University of Georgia Library.
• Jones, Peter N. Respect for the Ancestors: American Indian Cultural Affiliation in the American West. Boulder, CO: Bauu Press (2005). ISBN 0-9721349-2-1.
• Kroeber, Alfred L. (1939). Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology.
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• Pohl, Frances K. (2002). Framing America: A Social History of American Art. New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. 54–56, 105–106 & 110–111.
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• Krech, Shepard. The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, New York: W.W. Norton, 1999. 352 p. ISBN 0-393-04755-5
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• Sletcher, Michael, "North American Indians", in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson, eds., Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, 2 vols.
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• Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published), (1978–present).
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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Native Americans.

• Native American Treaties and Information from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Native American History from the Library of Congress American Memory project
• Native Americans in the United States at
  Curlie
• First Nations Seeker Visit Native American communities across North America and discover their history.
• Native American Historical Records available in the Archival Research Catalog of the National Archives and Records Administration
• Precolumbian Native American History, Art & Culture @ LostWorlds.org
• Bonneville Collection of 19th century photographs of Native Americans at University of South Carolina Library's Digital Collections Page