Spider taxonomy
Spider taxonomy is that part of
Due to constant research, with new species being discovered every month and others being recognized as
History
Spider taxonomy can be traced to the work of Swedish naturalist
Overview of phylogeny
At the very top level, there is broad agreement on the
Araneae (spiders) | |
The Araneomorphae are divided into two main groups: the
The Haplogynae are a group of araneomorph spiders with simpler male and female reproductive anatomy than the Entelegynae. Like the mesotheles and mygalomorphs, females have only a single genital opening (
The Entelegynae have a more complex reproductive anatomy: females have two "copulatory pores" in addition to the single genital pore of other groups of spiders; males have complex palpal bulbs, matching the female genital structures (epigynes).[13] The monophyly of the group is well supported in both morphological and molecular studies. The internal phylogeny of the Entelegynae has been the subject of much research. Two groups within this clade contain the only spiders that make vertical orb webs: the Deinopoidea are cribellate – the adhesive properties of their webs are created by packets of thousands of extremely fine loops of dry silk; the Araneoidea are ecribellate – the adhesive properties of their webs are created by fine droplets of "glue". In spite of these differences, the webs of the two groups are similar in their overall geometry.[16] The evolutionary history of the Entelegynae is thus intimately connected with the evolutionary history of orb webs. One hypothesis is that there is a single clade, Orbiculariae, uniting the orb web makers, in whose ancestors orb webs evolved. A review in 2014 concluded that there is strong evidence that orb webs evolved only once, although only weak support for the monophyly of the Orbiculariae.[17] One possible phylogeny is shown below; the type of web made is shown for each terminal node in order of the frequency of occurrence.[18]
Entelegynae |
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If this is correct, the earliest members of the Entelegynae made webs defined by the substrate on which they were placed (e.g. the ground) rather than suspended orb webs. True orb webs evolved once, in the ancestors of the Orbiculariae, but were then modified or lost in some descendants.
An alternative hypothesis, supported by some molecular phylogenetic studies, is that the Orbiculariae are paraphyletic, with the phylogeny of the Entelegynae being as shown below.[19]
Entelegynae |
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On this view, orb webs evolved earlier, being present in the early members of the Entelegynae, and were then lost in more groups,[20] making web evolution more convoluted, with different kinds of web having evolved separately more than once.[17] Future advances in technology, including comparative genomics studies,[1] and whole-genome sampling should lead to "a clearer image of the evolutionary chronicle and the underlying diversity patterns that have resulted in one of the most extraordinary radiations of animals".[17]
Suborder Mesothelae
Mesothelae resemble the Solifugae ("wind scorpions" or "sun scorpions") in having segmented plates on their abdomens that create the appearance of the segmented abdomens of these other arachnids. They are both few in number and also limited in geographical range.
- †Arthrolycosidae (primitive spiders, extinct)
- †Arthromygalidae (primitive spiders, extinct)
- Liphistiidae (primitive burrowing spiders)
Suborder Opisthothelae
Suborder
Infraorder Mygalomorphae
Spiders in infraorder Mygalomorphae are characterized by the vertical orientation of their fangs and the possession of four book lungs.
Infraorder Araneomorphae
Most, if not all, of the spiders one is likely to encounter in everyday life belong to infraorder
Classification above families
Spiders were long classified into families that were then grouped into superfamilies, some of which were in turn placed into a number of higher taxa below the level of infraorder. When more rigorous approaches, such as
At the higher level, the phylogeny of spiders is now often discussed using informal clade names, such as the "RTA clade",[23] the "Oval Calmistrum" clade or the "Divided Cribellum" clade.[24] Older names previously used formally are used as clade names, e.g. Entelegynae and Orbiculariae.[25]
Table of families
Genera | 1 | ≥2 | ≥10 | ≥100 |
Species | 1–9 | ≥10 | ≥100 | ≥1000 |
Family | Genera | Species | Common name | Example |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mesothelae | ||||
Heptathelidae | 7 | 113 | Kimura spider | |
Liphistiidae | 1 | 70 | Liphistius batuensis | |
Opisthothelae: Mygalomorphae | ||||
Actinopodidae | 3 | 118 | Missulena (mouse spiders) | |
Anamidae | 10 | 111 | Aname diversicolor (black wishbone spider) | |
Antrodiaetidae | 4 | 37 | folding trapdoor spiders | Atypoides riversi |
Atracidae |
3 | 36 | Australian funnel-web spiders | Illawarra wisharti |
Atypidae |
3 | 56 | purseweb spiders | Sphodros rufipes (red-legged purseweb spider) |
Barychelidae | 40 | 282 | trapdoor baboon spiders | Sason sundaicum |
Bemmeridae | 4 | 47 | Spiroctenus personatus | |
Ctenizidae | 2 | 5 | cork-lid trapdoor spiders | Cteniza sauvagesi |
Cyrtaucheniidae |
6 | 93 | wafer trapdoor spiders | Amblyocarenum nuragicus |
Dipluridae | 7 | 95 | funnel-web tarantulas | Spruce-fir moss spider (Microhexura montivaga) |
Entypesidae | 6 | 42 | Entypesa andohahela | |
Euagridae | 14 | 87 | Euagrus formosanus | |
Euctenizidae | 8 | 77 | Aptostichus simus | |
Halonoproctidae | 6 | 130 | Ummidia algarve | |
Hexathelidae | 7 | 45 | venomous funnel-web tarantulas | Hexathele hochstetteri |
Hexurellidae |
1 | 4 | ||
Idiopidae | 23 | 437 | armored trapdoor spiders | Idiosoma nigrum (black rugose trapdoor spider) |
Ischnothelidae | 5 | 26 | ||
Macrothelidae | 2 | 47 | ||
Mecicobothriidae |
1 | 2 | dwarf tarantulas | |
Megahexuridae |
1 | 1 | ||
Microhexuridae |
1 | 2 | ||
Microstigmatidae | 11 | 38 | Envia garciai | |
Migidae | 11 | 103 | tree trapdoor spiders | Moggridgea rainbowi |
Nemesiidae | 10 | 148 | funnel-web trapdoor spiders | Aname atra (black wishbone spider) |
Paratropididae | 4 | 16 | baldlegged spiders | Paratropis tuxtlensis |
Porrhothelidae |
1 | 5 | ||
Pycnothelidae | 15 | 137 | ||
Rhytidicolidae | 2 | 14 | Fufius lucasae | |
Stasimopidae |
1 | 47 | ||
Theraphosidae |
156 | 1039 | tarantulas | Goliath birdeater (Theraphosa blondi) |
Opisthothelae: Araneomorphae | ||||
Agelenidae | 90 | 1366 | araneomorph funnel-web spiders | Hobo spider (Eratigena agrestis) |
Amaurobiidae | 50 | 283 | tangled nest spiders | Callobius claustrarius |
Anapidae | 58 | 232 | ||
Anyphaenidae | 58 | 614 | anyphaenid sac spiders | Hibana velox (yellow ghost spider) |
Araneidae |
184 | 3097 | orb-weaver spiders | Zygiella x-notata |
Archaeidae | 6 | 90 | pelican spiders | Madagascarchaea gracilicollis |
Archoleptonetidae | 2 | 8 | Archoleptoneta gertschi | |
Arkyidae | 2 | 38 | ||
Austrochilidae | 2 | 9 | Hickmania troglodytes
| |
Caponiidae | 20 | 139 | Diploglena capensis | |
Cheiracanthiidae | 14 | 363 | ||
Cithaeronidae | 2 | 9 | ||
Clubionidae |
19 | 662 | sac spiders | Clubiona trivialis |
Corinnidae | 73 | 824 | dark sac spiders | Castianeira sp. |
Ctenidae |
48 | 532 | wandering spiders | Phoneutria fera |
Cyatholipidae | 23 | 58 | ||
Cybaeidae | 21 | 303 | Diving bell spider (Argyroneta aquatica) | |
Cycloctenidae | 8 | 80 | ||
Deinopidae | 3 | 67 | net-casting spiders | Deinopis subrufa (rufous net-casting spider)
|
Desidae | 60 | 296 | intertidal spiders | Phryganoporus candidus |
Dictynidae | 53 | 475 | Nigma walckenaeri | |
Diguetidae |
2 | 15 | coneweb spiders | |
Drymusidae | 2 | 17 | false violin spiders | |
Dysderidae | 25 | 591 | woodlouse hunter spiders | Woodlouse spider (Dysdera crocata) |
Eresidae |
9 | 102 | velvet spiders | Eresus sandaliatus |
Filistatidae |
19 | 189 | crevice weavers | Southern house spider (Kukulcania hibernalis) |
Gallieniellidae | 5 | 41 | ||
Gnaphosidae |
145 | 2430 | ground spiders | Drassodes cupreus |
Gradungulidae | 8 | 17 | large-clawed spiders | Progradungula carraiensis (Carrai cave spider) |
Hahniidae |
24 | 353 | dwarf sheet spiders | |
Hersiliidae |
16 | 187 | tree trunk spiders | Hersilia savignyi |
Homalonychidae |
1 | 2 | ||
Huttoniidae |
1 | 1 | Huttonia palpimanoides
| |
Hypochilidae |
2 | 33 | lampshade spiders | Hypochilus thorelli |
Lamponidae | 23 | 192 | White-tailed spider (Lampona spp.) | |
Leptonetidae | 22 | 370 | Tooth Cave spider (Tayshaneta myopica) | |
Linyphiidae | 624 | 4724 | dwarf / money spiders | Linyphia triangularis |
Liocranidae | 35 | 311 | liocranid sac spiders | |
Lycosidae |
127 | 2457 | wolf spiders | Lycosa tarantula |
Malkaridae | 13 | 57 | shield spiders | |
Mecysmaucheniidae | 7 | 25 | ||
Megadictynidae | 2 | 2 | ||
Mimetidae |
8 | 159 | pirate spiders | Oarces reticulatus |
Miturgidae | 29 | 141 | long-legged sac spiders | |
Myrmecicultoridae |
1 | 1 | ||
Mysmenidae | 14 | 158 | spurred orb-weavers | |
Nesticidae |
18 | 285 | scaffold web spiders | Nesticella marapu |
Nicodamidae | 7 | 27 | ||
Ochyroceratidae | 10 | 177 | midget ground weavers | Theotima minutissima |
Oecobiidae | 6 | 120 | disc web spiders | Oecobius navus |
Oonopidae | 115 | 1888 | dwarf hunting spiders | Oonops domesticus |
Orsolobidae | 30 | 188 | ||
Oxyopidae |
9 | 443 | lynx spiders | Peucetia viridans (green lynx spider) |
Pacullidae | 4 | 38 | ||
Palpimanidae | 21 | 165 | palp-footed spiders | |
Penestomidae |
1 | 9 | ||
Periegopidae |
1 | 3 | ||
Philodromidae | 30 | 535 | philodromid crab spiders | Philodromus dispar |
Pholcidae | 97 | 1893 | daddy long-legs spiders | Pholcus phalangioides |
Phrurolithidae | 20 | 313 | ||
Physoglenidae | 13 | 72 | ||
Phyxelididae | 14 | 68 | ||
Pimoidae | 2 | 85 | Pimoa cthulhu | |
Pisauridae |
51 | 353 | nursery web spiders | Pisaura mirabilis |
Plectreuridae | 2 | 31 | ||
Prodidomidae | 23 | 192 | ||
Psechridae | 2 | 61 | ||
Psilodercidae | 11 | 224 | ||
Salticidae |
665 | 6433 | jumping spiders | Zebra spider (Salticus scenicus) |
Scytodidae |
4 | 241 | spitting spiders | Scytodes thoracica |
Segestriidae |
5 | 152 | tubeweb spiders | Segestria florentina |
Selenopidae | 9 | 262 | wall spiders | Selenops radiatus |
Senoculidae |
1 | 31 | ||
Sicariidae | 3 | 172 | recluse spiders | Brown recluse (Loxosceles reclusa) |
Sparassidae |
95 | 1337 | huntsman spiders | Delena cancerides |
Stenochilidae | 2 | 13 | ||
Stiphidiidae | 20 | 125 | sheetweb spiders | Tartarus mullamullangensis |
Symphytognathidae | 10 | 98 | dwarf orb-weavers | Patu digua |
Synaphridae | 3 | 13 | ||
Synotaxidae | 1 | 11 | ||
Telemidae | 16 | 104 | long-legged cave spiders | |
Tetrablemmidae | 27 | 151 | armored spiders | |
Tetragnathidae |
46 | 982 | long jawed orb-weavers | Leucauge venusta (orchard spider) |
Theridiidae | 125 | 2538 | cobweb spiders | Redback spider (Latrodectus hasselti) |
Theridiosomatidae |
20 | 135 | ray spiders | Theridiosoma gemmosum |
Thomisidae | 171 | 2167 | crab spiders | Misumena vatia (goldenrod crab spider) |
Titanoecidae | 5 | 56 | Goeldia obscura | |
Toxopidae | 14 | 82 | ||
Trachelidae | 20 | 263 | ||
Trachycosmidae | 20 | 148 | ||
Trechaleidae | 20 | 148 | ||
Trochanteriidae | 6 | 51 | ||
Trogloraptoridae |
1 | 1 | Trogloraptor marchingtoni
| |
Udubidae | 4 | 15 | ||
Uloboridae | 19 | 291 | hackled orb-weavers | Uloborus walckenaerius |
Viridasiidae | 3 | 14 | ||
Xenoctenidae | 4 | 33 | ||
Zodariidae |
89 | 1251 | ant spiders | Zodarion germanicum |
Zoropsidae | 27 | 182 | Zoropsis spinimana |
Notes
- ^ a b Species counts from World Spider Catalog (2020, Currently valid spider genera and species), family classification from Coddington (2005, p. 20).
- ^ Unless otherwise shown, currently accepted families and counts based on the World Spider Catalog version 22.5 as of 5 November 2021[update].[26] In the World Spider Catalog, "species" counts include subspecies. Assignment to sub- and infraorders based on Coddington (2005, p. 20) (when given there).
References
- ^ a b Dimitrov & Hormiga (2021).
- ^ Platnick & Raven (2013), p. 600.
- ^ Platnick & Raven (2013), p. 597.
- ^ Bond et al. (2014).
- ^ Coddington (2005).
- ^ Coddington (2005), p. 20.
- ^ Griswold et al. (2005).
- ^ Blackledge et al. (2009), p. 5232.
- ^ a b Bond et al. (2014), p. 1766.
- ^ Coddington & Levi (1991), p. 577.
- ^ Eberhard & Huber (2010), pp. 256–257.
- ^ Eberhard & Huber (2010), p. 250.
- ^ a b Coddington (2005), p. 22.
- ^ Michalik & Ramírez (2014), p. 312.
- ^ Agnarsson, Coddington & Kuntner (2013), p. 40.
- ^ Hormiga & Griswold (2014), p. 488.
- ^ a b c Hormiga & Griswold (2014), p. 505.
- ^ Blackledge et al. (2009), Fig. 3.
- ^ Bond et al. (2014), Fig 3. Web types defined as Blackledge et al. (2009, Fig. 3)
- ^ Bond et al. (2014), p. 1768.
- ^ a b Coddington (2005), p. 24.
- ^ World Spider Catalog (2020).
- ^ Hormiga & Griswold (2014), p. 491.
- ^ Ramírez (2014), p. 4.
- ^ Hormiga & Griswold (2014), pp. 490–491.
- ^ World Spider Catalog (2021), Currently valid spider genera and species.
Bibliography
- Agnarsson, Ingi; Coddington, Jonathan A. & Kuntner, Matjaž (2013). "Systematics : Progress in the study of spider diversity and evolution". In Penney, David (ed.). Spider research in the 21st century: trends & perspectives. Manchester, UK: Siri Scientific Press. ISBN 978-0-9574530-1-2.
- Blackledge, Todd A.; Scharff, Nikolaj; Coddington, Jonathan A.; Szüts, Tamas; Wenzel, John W.; Hayashi, Cheryl Y. & Agnarsson, Ingi (2009). "Reconstructing web evolution and spider diversification in the molecular era". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (13): 5229–5234. PMID 19289848.
- Bond, Jason E.; Garrison, Nicole L.; Hamilton, Chris A.; Godwin, Rebecca L.; Hedin, Marshal & Agnarsson, Ingi (2014). "Phylogenomics Resolves a Spider Backbone Phylogeny and Rejects a Prevailing Paradigm for Orb Web Evolution". Current Biology. 24 (15): 1765–1771. PMID 25042592.
- Coddington, Jonathan A. (2005). "Phylogeny and classification of spiders" (PDF). In Ubick, D.; Paquin, P.; Cushing, P.E. & Roth, V. (eds.). Spiders of North America: an identification manual. American Arachnological Society. pp. 18–24. Retrieved 2015-09-24.
- Coddington, Jonathan A. & Levi, Herbert W. (1991). "Systematics and evolution of spiders (Araneae)". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 22: 565–592. JSTOR 2097274.
- Dimitrov, Dimitar & Hormiga, Gustavo (7 January 2021). "Spider Diversification Through Space and Time". Annual Review of Entomology. 66 (1): 225–241. S2CID 221235817.
- Eberhard, W.G. & Huber, B.A. (2010). "Spider genitalia: precise manoeuvers with a numb structure in a complex lock" (PDF). In Leonard, Janet L. & Córdoba-Aguilar, Alex (eds.). The evolution of primary sexual characters in animals. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-971703-3. Retrieved 2015-09-20.
- Griswold, C.E.; Ramirez, M.J.; Coddington, J.A. & Platnick, N.I. (2005). "Atlas of phylogenetic data for entelegyne spiders (Araneae: Araneomorphae: Entelegynae) with comments on their phylogeny" (PDF). Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. 56 (Suppl. 2): 1–324. Retrieved 2015-10-11.
- Hormiga, Gustavo & Griswold, Charles E. (2014). "Systematics, Phylogeny, and Evolution of Orb-Weaving Spiders". Annual Review of Entomology. 59 (1): 487–512. PMID 24160416.
- Michalik, Peter & Ramírez, Martín J. (2014). "Evolutionary morphology of the male reproductive system, spermatozoa and seminal fluid of spiders (Araneae, Arachnida)–Current knowledge and future directions". Arthropod Structure & Development. 43 (4): 291–322. PMID 24907603.
- Platnick, Norman I. & Raven, Robert J. (2013). "Spider Systematics: Past and Future". Zootaxa. 3683 (5): 595–600. PMID 25250473.
- Ramírez, Martín J. (2014). The morphology and phylogeny of dionychan spiders (Araneae, Araneomorphae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. 390. hdl:2246/6537.
- World Spider Catalog (2020). "World Spider Catalog version 21.5". Natural History Museum Bern. Retrieved 2020-10-31.