Spirit possession
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Spirit possession is an unusual or an altered state of consciousness and associated behaviors which are purportedly caused by the control of a human body and its functions by spirits, ghosts, demons, angels, or gods.[1] The concept of spirit possession exists in many cultures and religions, including Buddhism, Christianity,[2][unreliable source?] Haitian Vodou, Dominican 21 Divisions, Hinduism, Islam, Wicca, and Southeast Asian, African, and Native American traditions. Depending on the cultural context in which it is found, possession may be considered voluntary or involuntary and may be considered to have beneficial or detrimental effects on the host.[3] Spirit possession is often regarded as a reason in support of spirits, deities or demons. [4] In a 1969 study funded by the
Organized religions
Christianity
From the beginning of
Some theologians, such as Ángel Manuel Rodríguez, say that
The New Testament mentions several episodes in which Jesus drove out demons from persons.[8] Whilst most Christians believe that demonic possession is an involuntary affliction,[9] some biblical verses have been interpreted as indicating that possession can be voluntary. For example, Alfred Plummer writes that when Devil entered into Judas Iscariot in John 13:27, this was because Judas had continually agreed to Satan's suggestions to betray Jesus and had wholly submitted to him.[10]
The New Testament indicates that people can be possessed by demons, but that the demons respond and submit to Jesus Christ's authority:
In the synagogue, there was a man possessed by a demon, an evil spirit. He cried out at the top of his voice, "Ha! What do you want with us, Jesus of Nazareth? Have you come to destroy us? I know who you are—the Holy One of God!" "Be quiet!" Jesus said sternly. "Come out of him!" Then the demon threw the man down before them all and came out without injuring him. All the people were amazed and said to each other, "What is this teaching? With authority and power he gives orders to evil spirits and they come out!" And the news about him spread throughout the surrounding area
— Luke 4:33–35[11]
It also indicates that demons can possess animals as in the exorcism of the Gerasene demoniac.
Catholicism
The Catholic Encyclopedia says that there is only one apparent case of demonic possession in the Old Testament, of King Saul being tormented by an "evil spirit" (1 Samuel 16:14), but this depends on interpreting the Hebrew word "rûah" as implying a personal influence which it may not, so even this example is described as "not very certain". In addition, Saul was only described to be tormented, rather than possessed, and he was relieved from these torments by having David play the lyre to him.[15]
Catholic exorcists differentiate between "ordinary" Satanic/demonic activity or influence (mundane everyday temptations) and "extraordinary" Satanic/demonic activity, which can take six different forms, ranging from complete control by Satan or demons to voluntary submission:[14]
- Possession, in which Satan or demons take full possession of a person's body without their consent. This possession usually comes as a result of a person's actions; actions that lead to an increased susceptibility to Satan's influence.
- Obsession, which includes sudden attacks of irrationally obsessive thoughts, usually culminating in suicidal ideation, and which typically influences dreams.
- Oppression, in which there is no loss of consciousness or involuntary action, such as in the biblical Book of Job in which Job was tormented by Satan through a series of misfortunes in business, material possessions, family, and health.
- External physical pain caused by Satan or demons.
- Infestation, which affects houses, objects/things, or animals; and
- Subjection, in which a person voluntarily submits to Satan or demons.
In the Roman Ritual, true demonic or Satanic possession has been characterized since the Middle Ages, by the following four typical characteristics:[16][17]
- Manifestation of superhuman strength.
- Speaking in tongues or languages that the victim cannot know.
- Revelation of knowledge, distant or hidden, that the victim cannot know.
- Blasphemous rage, obscene hand gestures, using profanity and an aversion to holy symbols, names, relics or places.
The New Catholic Encyclopedia states, "Ecclesiastical authorities are reluctant to admit diabolical possession in most cases, because many can be explained by physical or mental illness alone. Therefore, medical and psychological examinations are necessary before the performance of major exorcism. The standard that must be met is that of moral certitude (De exorcismis, 16). For an exorcist to be morally certain, or beyond reasonable doubt, that he is dealing with a genuine case of demonic possession, there must be no other reasonable explanation for the phenomena in question".[18]
Official
Anglican
The infliction of demonic torment upon an individual has been chronicled in premodern Protestant literature. In 1597,
- Spectra, being the haunting and troubling of certain houses or solitary places.
- Obsession, the following and outwardly torment of an individual at diverse hours to either weaken or cast diseases upon the body, as in the Book of Job.
- Possession, the entrance inwardly into an individual to beget uncontrollable fits, induce blasphemies,
- Faerie, being the influence those who voluntarily submit to consort, prophesy, or servitude.
King James attested that the symptoms derived from demonic possession could be discernible from natural diseases. He rejected the symptoms and signs prescribed by the Catholic church as vain (e.g. rage begotten from
In medieval Great Britain, the Christian church had offered suggestions on safeguarding one's home. Suggestions ranged from dousing a household with holy water, placing wax and herbs on thresholds to "ward off witches occult", and avoiding certain areas of townships known to be frequented by witches and Devil worshippers after dark.[22] Afflicted persons were restricted from entering the church, but might share the shelter of the porch with lepers and persons of offensive life. After the prayers, if quiet, they might come in to receive the bishop's blessing and listen to the sermon. They were fed daily and prayed over by the exorcists and, in case of recovery, after a fast of from 20 to 40 days, were admitted to the Eucharist, and their names and cures entered in the church records.[23] In 1603, the Church of England forbade its clergy from performing exorcisms because of numerous fraudulent cases of demonic possession.[19]
Baptist
In May 2021, the Baptist Deliverance Study Group of the
In September 2023, Pastor Rick Morrow of Beulah Church in Richland, Missouri gave a sermon in which he presented the cause of autism as, "the devil's attacked them, he's brought this infirmity upon them, he's got them where he wants them". He asserted that the cure for the neurodevelopmental disorder was prayer by claiming to "know a minister who has seen lots of kids that are autistic, that he cast that demon out, and they were healed, and then he had to pray and their brain was rewired and they were fixed."[25] Members of the pastor's community found his comment to be "derogatory toward individuals with certain disabilities." Their public outcry led to Morrow's resignation from the school board on which he was a member.[26]
Evangelical
In both
Islam
Various types of creatures, such as
Although opposed by some Muslim scholars, sleeping near a graveyard or a tomb is believed to enable contact with the ghosts of the dead, who visit the sleeper in dreams and provide hidden knowledge.[29] Possession by ʻafarit (a vengeful ghost) are said to grant the possessed some supernatural powers, but it drives them insane as well.[30]
Jinn are much more physical than spirits.[31] Due to their subtle bodies, which are composed of fire and air (marijin min nar), they are purported to be able to possess the bodies of humans. Such physical intrusion of the jinn is conceptually different from the whisperings of the devils.[32]: 67 Since jinn are not necessarily evil, they are distinguished from cultural concepts of possession by devils/demons.[33]
Since such jinn are said to have free will, they can have their own reasons to possess humans and are not necessarily harmful. There are various reasons given as to why a jinn might seek to possess an individual, such as falling in love with them, taking revenge for hurting them or their relatives, or other undefined reasons.[34][35] At an intended possession, the covenant with the jinn must be renewed.[36] Soothsayers (kāhin pl. kuhhān), would use such possession to gain hidden knowledge. Inspirations from jinn by poets requires neither possession nor obedience to the jinn. Their relationship is rather described as mutual.[37]
The concept of jinn-possession is alien to the Quran and derives from pagan notions.
In contrast to jinn, the devils (
Demons (also known as div), though part of the human conception, get stronger through acts of sin.[47] By acts of obedience (to God), they get weaker. Although a human might find pleasure in obeying the demons first, according to Islamic thought, the human soul can only be free if the demons are bound by the spirit (ruh).[48] Sufi literature, as in the writings of Rumi and Attar of Nishapur, pay a lot of attention to how to bind the inner demons. Attar of Nishapur writes: "If you bind the div, you will set out for the royal pavilion with Solomon" and "You have no command over your self's kingdom [body and mind], for in your case the div is in the place of Solomon".[49] He further links the demons to the story alluded in the Quran (38:34) that a demon replaced the prophet Solomon: one must behave like a triumphant 'Solomon' and chain the demons of the nafs or lower self, locking the demon-prince into a 'rock', before the rūḥ (soul) can make the first steps to the Divine.[50]
Judaism
Although forbidden in the
In the
African traditions
Central Africa
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Zebola[58] is a women's spirit possession dance ritual practised by certain ethnic groups of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is believed to have therapeutic qualities and has been noted in the West as a traditional form of psychotherapy.
It originated among the Mongo people but is also practised among various ethnic groups in Kinshasa.[59]
Horn of Africa
Ethiopia
Among the Gurage people of Ethiopia, spirit possession is a common belief. William A. Shack postulated that it is caused by Gurage cultural attitudes about food and hunger, while they have a plentiful food supply, cultural pressures that force the Gurage to either share it to meet social obligations, or hoard it and eat it secretly cause feelings of anxiety. Distinctions are drawn between spirits that strictly possess men, spirits that possess women, and spirits that possess victims of either sex. A ritual illness that only affects men is believed to be caused by a spirit called awre. This affliction presents itself by loss of appetite, nausea, and attacks from severe stomach pains. If it persists, the victim may enter a trance-like stupor, in which he sometimes regains consciousness long enough to take food and water. Breathing is often labored. Seizures and trembling overcome the patient, and in extreme cases, partial paralysis of the extremities.[60]
If the victim does not recover naturally, a traditional healer, or sagwara, is summoned. Once the sagwara has determined the spirit's name through the use of divination, he prescribes a routine formula to exorcise the spirit. This is not a permanent cure, it merely allows the victim to form a relationship with the spirit while subject to chronic repossession, which is treated by repeating the formula. This formula involves the preparation and consumption of a dish of ensete, butter, and red pepper. During this ritual, the victim's head is covered with a drape, and he eats the ensete ravenously while other ritual participants participate by chanting. The ritual ends when the possessing spirit announces that it is satisfied. Shack notes that the victims are overwhelmingly poor men, and that women are not as food-deprived as men, due to ritual activities that involve food redistribution and consumption. Shack postulates that the awre serves to bring the possessed man to the center of social attention, and to relieve his anxieties over his inability to gain prestige from redistributing food, which is the primary way in which Gurage men gain status in their society.[60]
The belief in spirit possession is part of the native culture of the Sidama people of southwest Ethiopia. Anthropologists Irene and John Hamer postulated that it is a form of compensation for being deprived within Sidama society, although they do not draw from I.M. Lewis (see Cultural anthropology section under Scientific views). The majority of the possessed are women whose spirits demand luxury goods to alleviate their condition, but men can be possessed as well. Possessed individuals of both sexes can become healers due to their condition. Hamer and Hamer suggest that this is a form of compensation among deprived men in the deeply competitive society of the Sidama, for if a man cannot gain prestige as an orator, warrior, or farmer, he may still gain prestige as a spirit healer. Women are sometimes accused of faking possession, but men never are.[61]
East Africa
Kenya
- The Digo people of Kenya refer to the spirits that supposedly possess them as shaitani. These shaitani typically demand luxury items to make the patient well again. Despite the fact that men sometimes accuse women of faking the possessions in order to get luxury items, attention, and sympathy, they do generally regard spirit possession as a genuine condition and view victims of it as being ill through no fault of their own. Other men suspect women of actively colluding with spirits in order to be possessed.[62]
- The Giriama people of coastal Kenya believe in spirit possession.[63]
Mayote
- In Mayotte, approximately 25% of the adult population, and five times as many women as men, enter trance states in which they are supposedly possessed by certain identifiable spirits who maintain stable and coherent identities from one possession to the next.[64]
Mozambique
- In Mozambique, a new belief in spirit possession appeared after the Mozambican Civil War. These spirits, called gamba, are said to be identified as dead soldiers, and allegedly overwhelmingly possess women. Prior to the war, spirit possession was limited to certain families and was less common.[65]
Uganda
- In Uganda, a woman named Alice Auma was reportedly possessed by the spirit of a male Italian soldier named Lakwena ('messenger'). She ultimately led a failed insurrection against governmental forces.[66]
Tanzania
- The Sukuma people of Tanzania believe in spirit possession.[67]
- A now-extinct spirit possession cult existed among the Hadimu women of Zanzibar, revering a spirit called kitimiri. This cult was described in an 1869 account by a French missionary. The cult faded by the 1920s and was virtually unknown by the 1960s.[68]
Southern Africa
- A belief in spirit possession appears among the Xesibe, a Xhosa-speaking people from Transkei, South Africa. The majority of the supposedly possessed are married women. The condition of spirit possession among them is called inwatso. Those who develop the condition of inwatso are regarded as having a special calling to divine the future. They are first treated with sympathy, and then with respect as they allegedly develop their abilities to foretell the future.[69]
West Africa
- One religion among Hausa people of West Africa is that of Hausa animism, in which belief in spirit possession is prevalent.
African diasporic traditions
In many of the African diaspora religions possessing spirits are not necessarily harmful or evil, but are rather seeking to rebuke misconduct in the living.[70] Possession by a spirit in the African diaspora and traditional African religions can result in healing for the person possessed and information gained from possession as the spirit provides knowledge to the one they possessed.[71][72][73]
Haitian Vodou
In
Umbanda
The concept of spirit possession is also found in Umbanda, an Afro-Brazilian folk religion. According to tradition, one such possessing spirit is Pomba Gira, who possesses both women and males.[75]
Hoodoo
The culture of
Through counterclockwise circle dancing, ring shouters built up spiritual energy that resulted in the communication with ancestral spirits, and led to spirit possession. Enslaved African Americans performed the counterclockwise circle dance until someone was pulled into the center of the ring by the spiritual vortex at the center. The spiritual vortex at the center of the ring shout was a sacred spiritual realm. The center of the ring shout is where the ancestors and the Holy Spirit reside at the center.[82][83][84] The Ring Shout (a sacred dance in Hoodoo) in Black churches results in spirit possession. The Ring Shout is a counterclockwise circle dance with singing and clapping that results in possession by the Holy Spirit. It is believed when people become possessed by the Holy Spirit their hearts become filled with the Holy Ghost which purifies their heart and soul from evil and replace it with joy.[85] The Ring Shout in Hoodoo was influenced by the Kongo cosmogram a sacred symbol of the Bantu-Kongo people in Central Africa. It symbolizes the cyclical nature of life of birth, life, death, and rebirth (reincarnation of the soul). The Kongo cosmogram also symbolizes the rising and setting of the sun, the sun rising in the east and setting in the west that is counterclockwise, which is why ring shouters dance in a circle counterclockwise to invoke the spirit.[86][87]
Asian traditions
Yahwism
There are indications that trance-related practices might have played a role in the prophetic experiences of adherents of
Further according to Nissinen, the Hebrew Bible, may contain evidence that trance-related practices may have been the origins of the Jewish traditions of prophetic messages.[88]
Nissinen also recorded that music was an essential part to these trance-ceremonies in the Ancient Near-East and so it can be reconstructed it could have been found in Yahwism.[88] Instruments such as the tambourine, harps, lyres, and flutes may have been utilized, as those were common instruments in Ancient Israel.[90] Along with music, incense may have also been used, either as an offering, or to be used as an entheogen, or possibly as both.
Buddhism
According to the Indian medical literature and Tantric Buddhist scriptures, most of the "seizers", or those that threaten the lives of young children, appear in animal form: cow, lion, fox, monkey, horse, dog, pig, cat, crow, pheasant, owl, and snake. Apart from these "nightmare shapes", the impersonation or incarnation of animals can in some circumstances also be highly beneficial, according to Michel Strickmann.[93]
Ch'i Chung-fu, a Chinese gynecologist writing early in the 13th century, wrote that in addition to five sorts of falling frenzy classified according to their causative factors, there were also four types of other frenzies distinguished by the sounds and movements given off by the victim during his seizure: cow, horse, pig, and dog frenzies.[93]
In
- Kleśa-māra, or māra as the embodiment of all unskillful emotions, such as greed, hate, and delusion.
- Mṛtyu-māra, or māra as death.
- Skandha-māra, or māra as metaphor for the entirety of conditioned existence.
- Devaputra-māra, the cycle of rebirth on the night of the Buddha's enlightenment.[98]
It is believed that a māra will depart to a different realm once it is appeased.[94]
East Asia
Certain sects of
China
Background
China is a country where 73.56% of the population is defined as Chinese folk religion/unaffiliated (nonreligion). Therefore, the Chinese population's knowledge of spirit possession is not majorly obtained from religion. Instead, the concept is spread through fairy tales/folk tales and literary works of its traditional culture. In essence, the concept of soul possession has penetrated into all aspects of Chinese life, from people's superstitions, folk taboos, and funeral rituals, to various ghost-themed literary works, and has continued to spread to people's lives today.
Development
Spirit possession in China was prominent until the Communist takeover in the 1950s and most of the data gathered on this topic will be from the late 18th century. Some Chinese believe that illnesses to man is due to the possession of an evil yin spirit (kuei). These evil spirits become such when the deceased are not worshiped by the family, they have died unexpectedly, or did not follow Confucius's ideals of filial piety and ancestral reverence accordingly. These evil spirits cause unexplainable disasters, agricultural shocks and possessions. Disease is the cause of the supernatural where they do not have control over. Usually in the writings about this, the healers are the ones being described with detail, not so much the patient. Magical practices are sometimes what spirit possession is referred to as. It is very hard to distinguish between the religion, magic and local traditions. This is because many times, all three are fused together, so sometimes trying to distinguish between them is hard.
Shaman
Another type of spirit possession works through a
Yin-yang theory
The yin-yang theory is one of the most important bases and components of Chinese traditional culture. The yin-yang theory has penetrated into various traditional Chinese cultural things including calendar, astronomy, meteorology, Chinese medicine, martial arts, calligraphy, architecture, religion, feng shui, divination, etc. The yin-yang theory also applies to spirit possession. In general, one is considered to be "weak", when the yin and yang in the body are imbalanced, especially when the yin is on the dominant side. The spirits, which are categorized as the yin side, will then take control of these individuals with the imbalanced and yin-dominant situation more easily.
- Chinese ancestor veneration)
- Shamanism of the Solon People (Inner Mongolia)
- Tangki
Japan
India
Ayurveda
Bhūtavidyā, the exorcism of possessing spirits, is traditionally one of the eight limbs of Ayurveda.
Rajasthan
The concept of spirit possession exists in the culture of modern
Tamil Nadu
Sri Lanka
The
Southeast Asia
Indonesia
In Bali, the animist traditions of the island include a practice called
Influenced by the religion of Islam, among the several spirits in Indonesian belief are demons (
Malaysia
Female workers in
The Americas and Caribbean
Indo-Caribbean Shaktism
In Indo-Caribbean Madrasi Religion, a state of trance-possession known as "Sami Aduthal" in Tamil and as a "manifestation" in English occurs whence a devotee enters a trance state after praying. It is an essential part to Indo-Caribbean Shakti ceremonies, being accompanied by Tappu drumming, the singing of devotional songs, and the drumming of Udukai drums.
Ceremonies called Pujas often include the drumming of three to five tappu to invoke the deity to the space.[109] Then, the head pujari receives the God or Goddess into their body, acting as a medium. A mixture of water, turmeric powder, and neem leaves are poured onto the medium, as it is believed that the God's energy heats up the body while the water and turmeric with the neem leaves cools it down again.[110] Puja services are often held once a week.
Oceanic traditions
Melanesia
The
Micronesia
The concept of spirit possession appears in Chuuk State, one of the four states of Federated States of Micronesia. Although Chuuk is an overwhelmingly Christian society, traditional beliefs in spirit possession by the dead still exist, usually held by women, and "events" are usually brought on by family conflicts. The supposed spirits, speaking through the women, typically admonish family members to treat each other better.[113]
European traditions
Ancient Greece
Italian folk magic
In traditional Italian folk magic spirit possessions are not uncommon. It is known in this culture that a person may be possessed by multiple entities at once. The way to be rid of the spirit(s) would be to call for a curatore, guaritore or pratico which all translate to healer or knowledgeable one from Italian. These healers would perform sacred rituals to be rid of the spirits; the rituals are passed down through generations and vary based on the region in Italy. It is said that for many Italian rituals specifically those to be rid of negative spirits, that the information may only be shared on Christmas Eve (specifically for il malocchio). If the family is religious they may even call in a priest to perform a traditional catholic exorcism on the spirit(s).[114]
Shamanic traditions
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner who is believed to interact with a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance.[115][116] The goal of this is usually to direct these spirits or spiritual energies into the physical world, for healing or another purpose.[115]
New religious movements
Wicca
Scientific views
Cultural anthropology
The works of
The anthropologist I.M. Lewis noted that women are more likely to be involved in spirit possession cults than men are, and postulated that such cults act as a means of compensation for their exclusion from other spheres within their respective cultures.[120]
Physical anthropology
Anthropologists
Medicine and psychology
Spirit possession of any kind, including demonic, is not a psychiatric or medical diagnosis recognized by the DSM-5 or the ICD-10.[122] In clinical psychiatry, trance and possession disorders are defined as "states involving a temporary loss of the sense of personal identity and full awareness of the surroundings" and generally classed as a type of dissociative disorder.[123]
People alleged to be possessed by spirits sometimes exhibit symptoms similar to those associated with
In entry article on dissociative identity disorder, the DSM-5 states, "possession-form identities in dissociative identity disorder typically manifest as behaviors that appear as if a 'spirit,' supernatural being, or outside person has taken control such that the individual begins speaking or acting in a distinctly different manner".[130] The symptoms vary across cultures.[123] The DSM-5 indicates that personality states of dissociative identity disorder may be interpreted as possession in some cultures, and instances of spirit possession are often related to traumatic experiences—suggesting that possession experiences may be caused by mental distress.[129] In cases of dissociative identity disorder in which the alter personality is questioned as to its identity, 29 percent are reported to identify themselves as demons.[131] A 19th century term for a mental disorder in which the patient believes that they are possessed by demons or evil spirits is demonomania or cacodemonomanis.[132]
Some have expressed concern that belief in demonic possession can limit access to health care for the mentally ill.[133]
Notable examples
Purported demonic possessions
In chronological order:
- Martha Brossier (1578)
- Aix-en-Provence possessions (1611)
- Mademoiselle Elizabeth de Ranfaing (1621)
- Loudun possessions (1634)
- Dorothy Talbye trial (1639)
- Louviers possessions (1647)
- The Possession of Elizabeth Knapp(1671)
- George Lukins (1788)
- Gottliebin Dittus (1842)
- Antoine Gay (1871)
- Johann Blumhardt (1842)
- Clara Germana Cele (1906)
- Exorcism of Roland Doe (1940)
- Anneliese Michel (1968)
- Michael Taylor(1974)
- Arne Cheyenne Johnson(1981)
- Tanacu exorcism (2005)
See also
- Automatic writing
- Body hopping
- Demonology
- Divine madness
- Enthusiasm
- Jamaican Maroon spirit-possession language
- List of exorcists
- Necromancy
- Sexuality in Christian demonology
- Spirit spouse
- Spiritualist Church
- The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner
- Unclean spirit
- Walk-in
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- ^ Ferguson. "Magic Bowls". African American Heritage and Ethnography. National Park Service. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
- ^ a b c Nissinen, Martti. "'Prophecy and Ecstasy', Ancient Prophecy: Near Eastern, Biblical, and Greek Perspectives". Oxford. Oxford Academic. Retrieved 22 August 2023.
- JSTOR 1517036.
- ^ "The Sounds of Music in Ancient Israel". Jehovah’s Witnesses.
- ^ Konstantopoulos, Gina. "Demons and exorcism in ancient Mesopotamia". Gina Konstantopoulos.
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- ^ a b Strickmann (2002), p. 251.
- ^ a b Sutherland (2013).
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- ^ Kinnard (2006).
- ^ Buswell & Lopez (2013).
- ^ "Four maras". Lama Yeshe Wisdom Archive. 2019. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
- ^ Oxtoby & Amore (2010), pp. 256–319.
- ^ "朱秀華借屍回陽記".
- ^ "豐原鎮天宮全球資訊網".
- ^ "Spirit-Writing and the Development of Chinese Cults".
- ^ Snodgrass (2002), pp. 32–64.
- ^ Nabokov (1997), pp. 297–316.
- ^ Dart (1990), p. 83.
- ^ Broch (1985), pp. 262–282.
- ^ Woodward, Mark. Java, Indonesia and Islam. Deutschland, Springer Netherlands, 2010. p. 88
- ^ a b Ong (1988), pp. 28–42.
- ^ "Invoking the supernatural and the supranational: Tappu, trance and Tamil recordings in Indo-Guyanese 'Madras Religion' and the politics of sonic presence".
- ^ "Un Karagam Perantha Amma". Shri Maha Kali Ammaa Mandir.
- ^ a b c d e f Robbins (1998), pp. 299–316.
- ^ a b Robbins (2004b), p. 284.
- ^ Hezel (1993).
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Shamanism, religious phenomenon centred on the shaman, a person believed to achieve various powers through trance or ecstatic religious experience. Although shamans' repertoires vary from one culture to the next, they are typically thought to have the ability to heal the sick, to communicate with the otherworld, and often to escort the souls of the dead to that otherworld.
- ^ Adler (1997), p. [page needed].
- ^ Queiroz (2012), pp. 184–211.
- ^ De Heusch (2007), pp. 365–386.
- ^ Lewis (1966), pp. 307–329.
- ^ Kehoe & Giletti (1981), pp. 549–561.
- ^ Henderson (1981), pp. 129–134.
- ^ a b Bhavsar, Ventriglio & Dinesh (2016), pp. 551–559.
- ^ "How Exorcism Works". 8 September 2005.
- ^ Goodwin, Hill & Attias (1990), pp. 94–101.
- ^ Ferracuti, Sacco & Lazzari (1996), pp. 525–539.
- ^ Strickmann (2002), p. 65.
- ^ Beyerstein (1995), pp. 544–552.
- ^ a b Braitmayer, Hecker & Van Duijl (2015).
- ISBN 978-0-89042-554-1.
- ^ Erlendsson (2003).
- ^ Noll (2009).
- ^ Karanci (2014).
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