Spotted Tail
Spotted Tail | |
---|---|
Siŋté Glešká (birth name Jumping Buffalo) | |
Brulé Lakota leader | |
Personal details | |
Born | c.. 1823 Present-day South Dakota |
Died | August 5, 1881 South Dakota | (aged 57–58)
Resting place | Rosebud, South Dakota, U.S. 43°14′28″N 100°51′11″W / 43.24111°N 100.85306°W |
Spouse | Julia Black Lodge Spotted Tail |
Relations | Sisters, Iron Between Horns and Kills Enemy |
Children | Ah-ho-appa (Wheat Flour) or Hinzinwin (Fallen Leaf) |
Parent(s) | Father, Cunka or Tangle Hair; mother, Walks-with-the-Pipe |
Education | Sinte Gleska University named for him, 1971 |
Known for | Statesman and warrior, with interests in peace and education |
Spotted Tail (Siŋté Glešká Siouan:
After his almost two years time as a prisoner in Fort Leavenworth's following Grattan affair,[5] Spotted Tail was able to speak the English language well, and to deal with the "Wasichu" (white men) without an interpreter, whom he didn't trust. He had become convinced of the futility of making war to oppose the white incursions into his homeland; he became a statesman, speaking for peace and defending the rights of his tribe by using his knowledge of “wasichu” language and system to increase his political capability to hinder their tricks and deceptions.
He made several trips to Washington, D.C. in the 1870s to represent his people, and was noted for his interest in bringing education to the Sioux.[6] General Anson Mills, who knew Spotted Tail well, called him "a fine-looking man, with engaging manners, perfectly loyal to the government, a lover of peace, knowing no good could come to his people from war," a man who had both a high respect for and confidence in U.S. Army officers as well as a good sense of humor.[7] He was shot in the back and killed by
Early years
Spotted Tail was born about 1823 in the
Marriage and family
Spotted Tail married and had children. He gained his first wife in 1842, after a deadly fight against chief Mahto Wakuwa ("Running Bear"), and, being the killed chief a famous warrior, young (not even twenty years old) Spotted Tail's reputation probably greatly increased.
Grattan and Ash Hollow battles
In the late summer of 1854, about 4,000 Sichangu and
On August 19, 1854,
The U.S. press called the event the "Grattan Massacre", and reports generally ignored the US soldiers' instigation of the event by their failure first, to leave it up to the Indian agent to settle, as called for in the treaty, and second, shooting chief Conquering Bear in the back; punctually, when news of the fight reached the War Department, officials started planning retaliation to punish the Sioux. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis characterized the incident as "the result of a deliberately formed plan.[28]
Col.
Warned by the Indian agent
Harney returned to Fort Laramie with 70 prisoners, most of them women and children, including Spotted Tail's mother, wife and three children and
Spotted Tail's war and Indian uprising: Background
On June 8, 1864, US Government representatives met several Teton chiefs, who were called in at Cottonwood by Maj.
During the summer, several raids were performed by young Teton warriors along North Platte and Sweetwater Creek against white intruders. In July, a wagon train was attacked by the Oglala near the Platte River, kidnapping a woman. In August, a Cheyenne and Teton Dakota party, including Nomkahapa and his Sichangu, attacked another train, killing 11 men, burning the wagons and kidnapping a woman and a child, and, in the Little Blue Creek Valley, an Indian party (likely Teton Dakota) raided farms and wagons, kidnapping two women and three children at Liberty Farm. He Isnala and his son Mahpiua Icahtagya led a Minneconjou party of 30 men against Fort Laramie, stealing the whole stock. After the Little Blue Valley raid many settlers left the Nebraska border and General Mitchell went upstream of the Platte River and the Republican River leading a strong military column, but he did not find the Indians, camping all together in a large village on the
Spotted Tail's war and Indian uprising in Colorado
The Cheyenne and Arapaho
The Sand Creek survivors had joined the Cheyenne camping near the Smoky Hill River, and had called the Teton, Dakota and the
On January 19 the Indians, having already moved on White Butte Creek, started again on January 26 to the South Platte River, crossing it on January 28 near Harlow's Ranch, planning a big raid (after a sequence of raids along the South Platte River on farms and stagecoach stations, the warriors crossed the river having plundered so meny horses and cows that they decided to keep only the best and relinquish the other stock) before moving towards the Powder River on February 2, and joining Northern Cheyenne and other Oglala Teton Dakota;
The balance of Indian revenge in January to March 1865, was heavy to white people as for human losses (at least 24 soldiers and 36 civilians were killed, and at least two women and one child were kidnapped), and very heavy as for material damages and lost stock. Allied to Arapaho and Cheyenne, the Sichangu Teton Dakota, under Sinte Galeshka and Nomkahpa, and the Oglala Teton Dakota under Palani Wicakte, terrified white intruders along the South Platte River, attacking wagon trains, stagecoach stations and military outposts, razed to the ground Julesburg, left just in time by its inhabitants to corral themselves in Fort Rankin, and isolated Denver for months.
In little more than one month occurred: killing 15 soldiers and four civilians at Julesburg on January 7; destruction of Beaver Creek stagecoach station, attack to Godfrey's Ranch, destruction of Wisconsin Ranch on January 14; destruction of Morrison's American Ranch, with the killing of seven white men and disappearing and presumable kidnapping of a woman and a child on January 15; burning of Gittrell's Ranch on January 25; burning of Lillian Springs Ranch, attack on Washington Ranch on January 27 with the burning, the killing of two civilians and a kidnapping of a woman at Harlow's Ranch, as well as destruction of the Buffalo Springs Ranch and of Spring Hill Station occurred on January 28; burning and destruction of 100 tons of hay, stealing of mules and about 500 cows at Moore's Ranch, near Valley Station – garrisoned by a Cavalry company – and wounding of two troopers of a patrol left to recover some animals on January 28–29; killing, by a party of young Cheyenne warriors, of nine troopers belonging to the 3rd Colorado Volunteers Cavalry at Prairie on January 29; destruction of the stagecoach station at Beaver Creek on February 1; burning of Buler's Ranch, burning of Julesburg with the demolition of a telegraph line, capture of a 22 wagon train on February 2: killing of three civilians at Washington Ranch on February 4, killing of four civilians at Lillian Springs Ranch on February 7; killing of three civilians at Gittrell's Ranch on February 9; killing of one civilian at Moore's Ranch and attack on three wagon trains on February 11; killing of nine civilians in various places on March 2; killing of three civilians and burning of the town at Julesburg on [March 16]).
On February 2, the Indians left the South Platte to the North Platte and a party of about 1,000 warriors (including Tashunka Witko), a time again, was led by Sinte Galeshka, with Nomkahpa and Palani Wicakte, to Julesburg: useless they managed to attract to the open ground the soldiers, showing the usual decoy parties, then, undisputed masters of the ground, sacked again and burned the town, camping in front of Fort Rankin and Cheyenne and Arapaho capturing two large wagons (loaded the one with minery machinery and the other with liquors) near Gittrell's Ranch ruins, nine miles away Julesburg.
On February 3, Cheyenne and Arapaho left Julesburg to go back to the village on the Lodgepole Creek, but the Teton Dakota remained feasting in front of Fort Rankin, breaking down the telegraph line and raiding 1,500 heads of stock between Julesburg and Washington Ranch; on February 4 the Cheyenne stole the cows and 20 horses at Mud Springs Station, on Muddy Spring Creek, where was a small military garrison who asked for help, telegraphically, to Camp Mitchell, 55 miles away, and Fort Laramie; lt. William Ellsworth left Camp Mitchell leading 36 troopers of 11th Ohio Volunteers Cavalry, reaching Mud Springs on February 5, but, charged by the Indians and forced to fortify in the corral, the detachment, perhaps short of ammunitions, escaped his doom by making the horses and mules to run away and attract the warriors’ attention and distract them from the soldiers.
On February 6 arrived at Mud Springs the regiment's commander, Col.
Trust and betrayal
In April 1865 Sinte Galeshka, camped with his Sichangu on the Tongue River jointly with the Northern Arapaho, contacted by Government emissaries (in the meanwhile, on March 3, Vital Jerrott had replaced the disliked John Loree as Indian agent for the Upper Platte), appeared at Fort Laramie with 60 tepee (April 14) and settled near th fort, collecting a camp of 185 tepee jointly with Waba Sha's and I Tanka's Waglukhe and a fraction of Mahto Ohanko's Wagmezayuha Sichangu, while the other Wagmezayuha fraction, led by Blotahunka Tanka, went to join Tashunka Kokipapi's [*] and Mahpiua Luta's Oglala on the Powder River; an abnormal treaty subscribed by Genn.
Warring again from Powder to Platte Rivers: summer 1865
In the summer 1865 gen. Connor decided to expel the Indians from the territory north of the Platte River, therefore organizing his troops in three columns: (Cole, marching from Nebraska to the Black Hills; Walker, marching from Fort Laramie to the Black Hills; Connor, marching towardsl Montana along the Bozeman Trail); Connor's orders were “to kill every male indian older then 12 years” (and it's doubtful that officers and troopers woul ask for any Indian identity documents); from east, along the Powder River, was approaching, on the way to Montana, a column of gold seekers, mostly vetererans of the Civl War, organized by col. Sawyers. Pawnee auxiliaries were authorized to hunt every Dakota and keep for themselves his horses, therefore they killed several "Loafers" Lakota, provoking Sinte Galeshka's and the Sichangu's – who had returned recently again some Pawnee women captured some time before, giving with the women horses and other gifts -, and they threatened a fierce and bloody vengeance. In July a party of 50 Minneconjou braves, led by Kanku Wakantuya ("Long Backbone") raided for horses an Absaroke village; then the same Kanku Wakantuya, with 50 warriors, went raiding the Bozeman Trail, assailing an Omaha patrol scouting for the Army, killing three and stealing some horses of the military encampment. And in July ordered his troops to go into the Indian ruled cuntry: received the order to start, the 16° Kansas Volunteers Cavalry mutinied, and Walker to set down the rebellion, had to line up other troops ready to fire on the rebels, therefore the column left Fort Laramie on July 5; Connor crossed the Platte River on august 2, with 675 men, moving to the Powder River, where he stopped on august 11 and began to establish Camp Connor (later replaced with Fort Reno) 25 miles from the mouth of Crazy Woman's Fork; a further column, composed by civilians goldseekers, mostly veterans, led by James A. Sawyers was moving towards Montana from east; gen. Sully, with his troops, reached Fort Rice on July 13 (greeting cannon-shots fired by col. Dimon made the 250 Hunkpapa, Sihasapa and Yanktonai camping along the river near the fort panic-striken; hardly they were persuaded the troops had no hostile intentions, but 130 mre families - including Tatanka Yotanka's group – who were approaching the fort turned back to their villages). During ten months (May–December) Powder River country was impassable to white people: 47 sevicemen and 109 civilians were killed and 16 women were captured. On July 26, 1865 about 1,000 (or, according other statement, 3,000) Teton Lakota, Northern Cheyenne and Hotamitaniu ("Dog Soldiers") Cheyenne, (led by Woquini, Tahmelepashme, Mahpiua Luta, Tashunka Kokipapi, - credited as present by the Cheyenne half-breed George Bent - and several others among the most important chiefs, as Sinte Galeshka - who, coming to Fort Laramie on a peace parley in the spring 1866, would deny to have taken part in the battle -, Kanku Wakantuya, Maza Pangeska, Nomkahpa, Palani Wicakte, Wahacanka Sapa, Mixaso Ska, Hehaka Galeshka, Mahpiua Icahtagya, [Young] Tashunkakokipapi, Shunka Bloka, Tashunka Witko, Chancu Tanka) attacked Platte Bridge Station, a post on the North Platte River garrisoned by a 11° Ohio Volunteers Cavalry battalion under maj. Martin Anderson; having uselessly tried to attract the troops outside the palizades, the warriors fell back on a five wagons military train and its escort of 25 troopers belonging to 11° Kansas Volunteers under sgt. Amos Custard, moving to the outpost, and a platoon of 25 more troopers belonging to the same 11° Kansas Volunteers (including a detachment of 12 men under cpl. Henry Grimm escorting the mail delivery) under lt. Caspar Collins (11° Ohio Volunteers) was sent to the rescue: before being rejected by the outpost howitzer, the Indians (whose final losses altgether amounted to eight killed and many more wounded) destroyed Custard's detachment, killing 23 troopers while only two escaped, and overwhelmed Collins’ and Grimm's, killing the officer and four troopers and wounding nine; therefore the Lakota turned back to the Powder River.[37][38]
Treaty of Fort Laramie
In the fall 1865 Spotted Tail and Red Cloud rejected two peace messages sent to them by Dakota Territory Governor Newton Edmunds and Gen. Henry H. sibley by way of Kawawesna Tanka (Big Ribbs) and, later, I Tanka (Big Mouth), two friendly chiefs campng near Fort Laramie, but the winter 1865-1866 was a hard one, supplies in the villages went low and many horses died, so several bands began to be better inclined towards peace proposals; In March 1866 Spotted Tail communicated his daughter was sick and he was to come and carry her to Laramie. Spotted Tail arrived on march 9 and Red Cloud on march 14; Fallen Leaf died along the way to the fort, and when she was dying, the girl made her father promise that she would be buried on a hillside overlooking Fort Laramie: the entire garrison at the post helped Spotted Tail to honor her request by arranging for a ceremonial funeral, including a Christian service and Sioux ceremony. Many years later, Spotted Tail had her remains transported to the Rosebud Indian Agency in South Dakota and re-interred.[14][15] The two great chiefs and their people received gifts and were ready for peace, scheduling a meeting with Government Commisary N.G. Taylor for June 5 ad then, waiting for more Lakota and Cheyenne bands, for June 16, but, on June 16, col. Henry B, Carrington's arrival, with the 700 men of his 18° Infantry, moving to the Bozeman trail and camping at 5 miles from the fort, provoked Red Cloud and Old Man Feared-for-his-Horses to leave the council; Spotted Tail and other chiefs subscribed a treaty on June 27. In may, while waiting for Taylor, Spotted Tail, now at peace with the wasichu, left to make war on the Pawnee, from 1865 hunting again in Lakota country, provoking frantic appeals for troops to protect them and the Pawnee Agency white employees; therefore he led the Sichangu braves to clean out the Pawnee in the Republican River country.[39] Spotted Tail didn't join the new uprising along the Bozeman Trail promoted and led by Red Cloud, but other important leaders, as Tashunka Kokipapi (Old Man Feared-for-his-Horses), Palani Wikakte (Pawnee Killer), He Isnala (Lone Horn), He Napin Wanica (No Horn), Pezi (Grass), Tatoka Inyanka (Running Proghorn) were not convinced supporters of a new war on the wasichu, and would have disengaged as soon as possible. After Red Clud's war Spotted Tail agreed to the treaty, which in 1868 established the Great Sioux Reservation in West River, west of the Missouri River. In 1871, the senior Spotted Tail, by then the principal war chief and leader of the Sichangu Lakota, visited Washington, D.C. to meet the Commissioner of Indian Affairs Ely S. Parker and President Ulysses S. Grant. While there, he met with Red Cloud, the principal war chief and leader of the Oglala Lakota, and they agreed to work together on preserving Sioux rights and land.[citation needed] Spotted Tail succeeded in manteining almost balanced relations with the wasichu, visiting Washington several times and gaining the esteem of many high officers and Government civil servants, so much that, in January 1872, Gen.
Prelude to the Great Sioux War of 1876-77
In 1874, George Armstrong Custer led a reconnaissance mission into Sioux territory that reported gold in the Black Hills, an area held sacred by the local Indians. Formerly, the Army tried to keep miners out but did not succeed; the threat of violence grew. In May 1875, delegations headed by Spotted Tail, Red Cloud, and Lone Horn traveled to Washington, D.C. in a last-ditch attempt to persuade President Grant to honor existing treaties and stem the flow of miners into their territories. The Indians met with Grant, Secretary of the Interior Delano, and Commissioner of Indian Affairs Smith, who informed them that Congress wanted to resolve the matter by giving the tribes $25,000 for their land and resettling them into Indian Territory. The Indians rejected such a treaty, with Spotted Tail's reply to the proposition being as follows:
My father, I have considered all the Great Father told me, and have come here to give you an answer.... When I was here before, the President gave me my country, and I put my stake down in a good place, and there I want to stay.... I respect the Treaty (doubtless referring to the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie) but the white men who come in our country do not. You speak of another country, but it is not my country; it does not concern me, and I want nothing to do with it. I was not born there.... If it is such a good country, you ought to send the white men now in our country there and let us alone....
The chiefs organized a general council at Lone Tree (halfway between Red Cloud's and Spotted Tail's agencies) and it confirmed the general hostility against any cession, but, in the summer Custer's 7° Cavalry was sent to the Black Hills and a Government Commission (Sen. William B. Allison, rev. Samuel D. Hinman, gen. A. Terry, John Collins - trader at Laramie -) was sent to negotiaie the transfer of the region: Red Cloud didn't appear and Spotted Tail rejected the Commission proposal.
While Sitting Bull (Tatanka Yotanka) was organizing a general uprising in the north to defend Lakota sovereignty on the Black Hills, and Red Cloud (Mahpiua Luta) was growing more and more angry, Spotted Tail (Sinte Galeshka) went for a reconnaissance mission for his own, finding gold eichness in the hills, and then went again for an other reconnaissance missin with other chiefs and Indian Agent Edwin A. Howard to show them his discovery and have a real esteem of the economic worth of the country, then asked for a price ten times greater and Government men refused, as he had foreseen.[41]
When the Black Hills' campaign started, both Rosebud (Spotted Tail's Sichangu) and Pine Ridge (Red Cloud's Oglala) reservations were put under strict military control, weapons and horses were seized by the army and the two great chiefs were cautiously arrested.
After Little Bighorn battle and Sitting Bull’s withdrown to Canada, many hostile bands decided or were forced to turn back to Spotted Tail’s and Red Cloud’s, where the majority of Sichangu and Oglala had stayed anyway; the two great chiefs were active in missions to call back the scattered bands, including Tashunka Witko (Crazy Horse)’s and, later, Piji (Gall)’s; Spotted Tail was able to gain the surrender to gen. George Crook of ten times the hostiles who surrendered to col. Nelson Miles; the horses belonging to these bands were given to the reservation chiefs, but Spotted Tail turned back to them their horses (1200 horses were returned to Mahpiua Icahtagya ‘Touching-the-Cloud’’ ’s Minneconjou and Mahto Hanska ‘’Tall Bear’’ ’s and Mahto Sha ‘’Red Bear’’ ‘s Itazipcho), as he used (being the only Lakota chief to receive, as thanks by Crook, a government salary or as head chief of the Lakota or as honorary major of the Army) to distribute the whole amount of his govermen’s money, which he had asked to get in one-dollar banknotes, to the needy Lakota families in the reservation.[42]
Death in 1881
On August 5, 1881, after a long simmering feud, Crow Dog shot and killed Chief Spotted Tail on the Rosebud Indian Reservation. Crow Dog was arrested and tried in a territorial court in Deadwood, Dakota Territory, and found guilty of murder and sentenced to hang. In the case of
Spotted Tail is buried in Rosebud, South Dakota. A tribal university (Sinte Gleska University) on the Rosebud Indian Reservation in South Dakota was named for him in 1971.[46]
Impact on Indian legal jurisprudence
Spotted Tail's death influenced critical Indian law principles, long after his death. The case of Ex parte Crow Dog established that Indian tribes retain their sovereignty. The case also motivated the immediate creation, starting in 1885 of a series of federal statutes laying out the division of power between federal courts and Indian tribal courts to try Indian and non-Indian persons, in different circumstances for different crimes on Indian reservations. However Ex parte Crow Dog also established the plenary powers doctrine, giving Congress the power to pass any law they choose (including laws altering treaties that had been previously entered into), even over the opposition of the tribe or tribes affected.[citation needed]
See also
Notes
- ^ Ingham (2013) uses 'c' to represent 'č'.
References
- ^ Spotted Tail aka Sinte Gleska aka Jumping Buffalo aka Tatanka Napsica - Brule Sioux Warrior 1870, retrieved June 18, 2020
- ISBN 978-1-136-84489-8.
- ^ Hyde 1974, p. 3
- ^ ISBN 0-553-11979-6
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 75–76.
- ^ St. Francis Indian School, School History, retrieved November 21, 2008[permanent dead link]
- ^ Anson Mills, My Story (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003 [1918]), 158, 164, 167.
- ^ Hyde 1974, pp. 3–22
- ^ Hyde 1974, pp. 14–15
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 3–30.
- ^ Hyde, George (1957). Res Cloud's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 3–31.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 35.
- .
- ^ a b Wyoming, a Guide to Its History, Highways, and People. New York: Oxford University Press. 1941. p. 299.
- ^ a b Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 124–125.
- ^ Hogland, Alison K. Army Architecture in the West: Forts Laramie, Bridger and D.A. Russell, 1849-1912. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 17.
- ^ a b Paul Norman Beck, The First Sioux War: The Grattan Fight and Blue Water Creek, 1854-1856, University Press of America, 2004, pp. 40-41, accessed 7 Dec 2010
- ^ Beck (2004), The First Sioux War, pp. 46-47
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 60.
- ^ Hyde, George (1957). Red Cloud's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 74.
- ^ Beck (2004), First Sioux War, pp. 50-52
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 40, 58–62.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 57–61.
- ^ Hyde, George (1957). Red Cloud's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 72–75.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 58–62.
- ^ Editor, Flannery, L. G. (Pat) (1964). John Hunton's Diary, Volume 5. Lingle, Wyoming: Guide Review. p. 21.
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has generic name (help) - ISBN 0-7884-3804-2.
- ^ Hyde, George (1957). Red Cloud's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 76.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 74.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 71–73.
- ^ a b Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 73–74.
- ^ a b Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 101–102.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 102–103.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 105.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 106–110.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 117–122.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 122.
- ^ Hyde, George (1957). Red Cloud's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 123–127.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 128.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 195–196.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 234–235.
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 270.
- ^ Luther Standing Bear, Land of the Spotted Eagle (1928) (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 157-59. Nevertheless, according Richard N. Ellis in the introduction to the 2006 imprint, there is "no evidence" to support the charge that Spotted Tail had stolen Sioux land or taken a crippled man's wife. (xxiv)
- ^ Ex parte Crow Dog, 109 U.S. 556 (1883).
- ^ Hyde, George (1979). Spotted Tail's Folk. Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 332–335.
- ^ History of Sinte Gleska Archived 2008-12-22 at the Wayback Machine Sinte Gleska University
Sources
- Hyde, George E. (1974) [1961], Spotted Tail's Folk: A History of the Brulé Sioux (2nd ed.), University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-1380-7
- Griske, Michael (2005), The Diaries of John Hunton, Heritage Books, pp. 66–69, 91–96, ISBN 0-7884-3804-2