Squatting
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Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not
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The majority of squatting is residential in nature. As a phenomenon it tends to occur when a poor and homeless population makes use of derelict property or land through urban homesteading.[1] According to a 2003 estimate by the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), there were about one billion people in squatter settlements and slums.[2] According to an academic, Kesia Reeve, "squatting is largely absent from policy and academic debate and is rarely conceptualised, as a problem, as a symptom, or as a social or housing movement."[3]
In many of the world's poorer countries, there are extensive
Squatting can be related to political movements, such as
- Deprivation-based – homeless people squatting for housing need
- An alternative housing strategy – people unprepared to wait on municipal lists to be housed take direct action
- Entrepreneurial – people breaking into buildings to service the need of a community for cheap bars, clubs etc.
- Conservational – preserving monuments because the authorities have let them decay
- Political – activists squatting buildings as protests or to make social centres
Adverse possession, sometimes described as squatter's rights, is a method of acquiring title to property through possession for a statutory period under certain conditions.[8] Countries where this principle exists include England and the United States, based on common law.[9][10][11]
Anarchist author Colin Ward asserts: "Squatting is the oldest mode of tenure in the world, and we are all descended from squatters. This is as true of the Queen [of the United Kingdom] with her 176,000 acres (710 km2) as it is of the 54 percent of householders in Britain who are owner-occupiers. They are all the ultimate recipients of stolen land, for to regard our planet as a commodity offends every conceivable principle of natural rights."[12] Others have a different view; UK police official Sue Williams, for example, has stated that "Squatting is linked to anti-social behaviour and can cause a great deal of nuisance and distress to local residents. In some cases there may also be criminal activities involved."[13] The public attitude toward squatting varies, depending on legal aspects, socioeconomic conditions, and the type of housing occupied by squatters. In particular, while squatting of municipal buildings may be treated leniently, squatting of private property can often lead to strongly negative reactions on the part of the general public and the authorities.[14]
Africa
In African countries such as Nigeria, informal settlements are created by migration from rural areas to urban areas. Reasons for squatting include the lack of low cost housing, unemployment and inability to access loans.[15] In 1995, almost 70% of the population of the Nigerian capital Lagos were living in slums.[16]
The
An estimated 3,500 people live in the
Liberia
In Liberia, squatting is one of three ways to access land, the other being ownership by deed or customary ownership.[23] West Point was founded in Monrovia in the 1950s and is estimated to house between 29,500 and 75,000 people.[24] During the First Liberian Civil War 1989–1997 and the Second Liberian Civil War 1999–2003, many people in Liberia were displaced and some ended up squatting in Monrovia.[25] The Ducor Hotel fell into disrepair and was squatted, before being evicted in 2007.[26] Recently, over 9,000 Burkinabés were squatting on remote land and the Liberia Land Authority (LLA) has announced it will be titling all land in the country.[27][28]
South Africa
In
There have been a number of similar conflicts between shack dwellers, some linked with the
Sudan
Squatting in
Zimbabwe
Land squats occurred in what would become Zimbabwe in the 1970s and were routinely evicted. Only Epworth persisted on account of its size (around 50,000 people).[36] After Zimbabwe was created in 1980, peasant farmers and squatters disputed the distribution of land. Informal settlements have developed on the periphery of cities such as Chitungwiza and the capital Harare.[37] In 2005, Operation Murambatsvina ("Operation Drive Out Filth") organised by President Robert Mugabe evicted an estimated 700,000 people and affected over two million people.[38]
Middle East
Palestine
Turkey
Gecekondu is a Turkish word meaning a house put up quickly without proper permissions, a squatter's house, and by extension, a shanty or shack. From the 1960s onwards, these settlements have provided a means of housing for poor workers and new migrants arriving in cities such as Ankara and Istanbul.[43][18]: 89 From the 1980s onwards, property developers have upgraded many gecekondu areas.[43]
Shortly after the 2013 Gezi Park protests in Istanbul, Don Kişot (Don Quixote) was squatted in the Kadıköy district. It was stated to be the city's first occupied and self-managed social centre;[44] Caferağa Mahalle Evi (community centre Caferağa), also in Kadıköy, was squatted soon afterwards and evicted in December 2014.[45][46] A place was occupied in Beşiktaş district of Istanbul on March 18, 2014, and named Berkin Elvan Student House, after a 15-year-old boy who was shot during the Gezi protests and later died.[47] Atopya was squatted in Ankara in June 2014 by anarchists, who claimed it was the city's first political squat.[48][45]
South and East Asia
Squatters in Malaysia live on both privately owned and government-owned land.[49] Some squatters have lived on land owned by national electricity company Tenaga Nasional for over five decades.[50]
Squatters in Indonesia live on both privately owned and government-owned land. For example, the former Kalisosok Prison in Surabaya has been squatted since 2000s after being used as a prison for over 100 years.[51]
In Thailand, although evictions have reduced their visibility or numbers in urban areas, many squatters still occupy land near railroad tracks, under overpasses, and waterways. Commercial squatting is common in Thailand, where businesses temporarily seize nearby public real estate (such as sidewalks, roadsides, beaches, etc.) and roll out their enterprise, and at closing time they fold it in and lock it up, thus avoiding the extra cost of having to rent more property.[52] In the early 2000s, the government estimated that 37% of the population lived in low-income urban communities, over half of which were squatting public land or renting precariously. The National Housing Authority stated over 100,000 families were living under threat of immediate eviction.[30]: 26
Hong Kong and Chinese mainland
In China,
India
In Mumbai there are an estimated 10 to 12 million inhabitants, and six million of them are squatters. The squatters live in a variety of ways. Some possess two- or three-story homes built out of brick and concrete which they have inhabited for years. Geeta Nagar is a squatter village based beside the Indian Navy compound at Colaba. Squatter Colony in Malad East has existed since 1962, and now, people living there pay a rent to the city council of 100 rupees a month. Dharavi is a community of one million squatters. The stores and factories situated there are mainly illegal and so are unregulated, but it is suggested that they do over $1 million in business every day.[58]
Other squatters are pavement dwellers, with very few possessions. Activists such as Jockin Arputham, Prema Gopalan and Sheela Patel are working for better living conditions for slum dwellers, through organisations such as Mahila Milan and Slum Dwellers International.[59] In the 2016 Mathura clash, members of Azad Bharat Vidhik Vaicharik Kranti Satyagrahi (Free India Legal Ideas Revolutionary Protesters) who had been living in Mathura's largest public park Jawahar Bagh for two years were evicted in a large police operation. At least 24 squatters were killed.[60]
Philippines
After World War II many people were left homeless in the Philippines and they built makeshift houses called "barong-barong" on abandoned private land.[61] The first mass eviction on record in Manila was 1951 and the largest was in late 1963 and early 1964 when 90,000 people were displaced.[18]: 43 By 1978, there were estimated to be two million squatters in Manila, occupying 415 different locations.[18]: 77
In the early 1980s, the squatter population grew and the government of Ferdinand Marcos made attempts to relocate squatters to low-cost housing projects. The sites were not prepared well, and moved people far away from their employment and social networks.[18]: 45 Projects included the former Smokey Mountain landfill at Tondo, Taguig (BLISS Housing Project), and Rodriguez, Rizal. Philippine law distinguishes between squatters who squat because of poverty and those who squat in hopes of getting a payment to leave the property.[62] In 1982, Imelda Marcos referred to the latter group as "professional squatters [...] plain land-grabbers taking advantage of the compassionate society".[18]: 46 Philippines-based media and journalists refer to squatters as "informal settlers".[63][64] The Community Mortgage Program was set up in 1992, aiming to help low-income families transition from squatting to affordable housing. By 2001, around 106,000 families had found secure housing in over 800 separate communities.[30]: 54
Central and Eastern Europe
The trajectory of squatting in central and eastern Europe is different from that of western Europe because, until recently, countries were part of the
In 1980s
Starting from December 2012,
There was a large squatting movement in the newly formed state of
Western Europe
In many West European countries, since the 1960s and 1970s, there are both squatted houses used as residences and
In
In early twentieth century France, several artists who would later become world-famous, such as Guillaume Apollinaire, Amedeo Modigliani and Pablo Picasso squatted at the Bateau-Lavoir, in Montmartre, Paris. Paris moved to legitimize some popular artist squats in the mid-2000s by purchasing and renovating the buildings for artist–residents. An example is Les Frigos.[92] In the 2010s there have been several land squats protesting against large infrastructure projects. These are known collectively as Zone to Defend or ZAD (French: zone à défendre). The first and largest was the ZAD de Notre-Dame-des-Landes, which successfully opposed an airport project near Nantes.[93]
Germany
During the
Squatting is also used as a tactic for campaigning purposes, such as the
Iceland
In Reykjavík, the capital of Iceland, there is a small tradition of squatting. In 1919, anarchists occupied a building and were quickly evicted.[106] Squatters occupied an empty house in downtown Reykjavík on Vatnsstigur street in April 2009.[107] The squatters set up a freeshop and had plans for a social centre, but the occupation was quickly evicted by the police and 22 people were arrested.[108] Vatnsstigur 4 was briefly resquatted on May 7, 2009, in solidarity with the Rozbrat squat in Poland, which was threatened with eviction.[109] Also in 2009, a group of graffiti artists called the Pretty Boys occupied Hverfisgata 34. Their intention was to make a clandestine gallery and then when they were not evicted, they legalised the space and called it Gallery Bosnia.[110]
When the Reykjavíkur Akademían (the Reykjavík Academy) was evicted at short notice from Hringbraut 121 in November 2011, it was occupied in protest. The space, which had hosted lectures and also Iceland's trade union and anarchist libraries, was moved to another location but the occupiers were unhappy that the new use of the building would be a guest house for tourists. An art exhibition was organised, with a camera obscura, live music and shadow theatre.[111]
Ireland
The Dublin Housing Action Committee (DHAC) was active between 1968 and 1971, occupying buildings to protest the housing crisis.[112] The Prohibition of Forcible Entry and Occupation Act of 1971 criminalized squatting.[113] Squatters can gain title to land and property by adverse possession as governed by the 1957 Statute of Limitations Act.[114] From the 1990s onwards, there have been occasional political squats such as Disco Disco, Magpie and Grangegorman.[115][116]
Italy
In
This situation has so far received the approval of Italian courts, which have been reluctant to defend the owners' rights. In contrast with the dominant jurisprudence, new case-law (from the Rome Tribunal and the Supreme Court of Cassation) instructs the government to pay damages in case of squatting if the institutions have failed to prevent it.[120]
Netherlands
The Dutch use the term krakers to refer to people who squat houses with the aim of living in them (as opposed to people who break into buildings for the purpose of vandalism or theft).[7] Notable squats in cities around the country include ACU and Moira in Utrecht, the Poortgebouw in Rotterdam, OCCII, OT301 and Vrankrijk in Amsterdam, the Grote Broek in Nijmegen, Vrijplaats Koppenhinksteeg in Leiden, De Vloek in The Hague and the Landbouwbelang in Maastricht. Land squats include Ruigoord and Fort Pannerden.
On 1 June 2010,
Spain
In
The number of squatted social centres in Barcelona grew from under thirty in the 1990s to around sixty in 2014, as recorded by Info Usurpa (a weekly activist agenda).[124]: 113 The influential Kasa de la Muntanya was occupied in 1989.[124]: 104 In 2014, the ultimately unsuccessful attempts to evict the long-running social centre of Can Vies provoked major riots.[125] Another long-running squat is Can Masdeu, which survived a concerted eviction attempt in 2002. Eleven occupiers suspended themselves off the walls of the building for several days.[124]: 114
Younger squatters set up
United Kingdom
England
Squatting has a long history in England.[130] The occupation and cultivation of untended land motivated the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 and the Diggers in the 17th century.[131] In the 20th century, squatters turned to abandoned buildings. Mass squats were organised in a number of prominent public buildings in central London, culminating in the occupation of 144 Piccadilly in 1969. The London Street Commune or "Hippydilly" garnered worldwide attention.[132] There were estimated to be 50,000 squatters throughout Britain in the late 1970s, with the majority (30,000) living in London.[133] The BBC reported in 2011 that the government estimated that there were "20,000 squatters in the UK" and "650,000 empty properties".[131] On 1 September 2012, under Section 144 of the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012, squatting in residential property was criminalised by the Cameron–Clegg coalition, punishable by up to six months in prison or a £5000 fine, or both.[134][135] The same year saw the first successful prosecution for squatting, resulting in a 12-week jail sentence.[136] Section 61 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 provides police with additional power to remove trespassers when there is damage to land or property, trespassers are abusive, insulting or threatening or there are over six vehicles on premises related to squatters.[137]
Northern Ireland
In the late 1960s, people in Northern Ireland were forced to squat through both poverty and a lack of decent housing. In County Tyrone, there were allegations of unfair housing provision on the basis of politics and religion.[138] When a house in the village of Caledon, near Dungannon, was allocated to a young Protestant woman, Emily Beattie, it caused protests.[139] She was secretary to a solicitor who worked for the Unionist councillor who had given her the house and two Catholic families who had been overlooked complained that the same councillor had scotched plans to build houses for Catholics in the Dungannon area. Several days after the woman had moved in, the Catholic squatters in the house next door were evicted. Austin Currie, then a young politician, complained both at the local council and at Stormont about the situation. He then symbolically occupied the woman's house for a few hours, before being evicted by the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC). One of the policeman was the woman's brother who himself moved into the house later on.[138] The incident quickly became a media sensation and in August the civil rights movement arranged one of its first marches, from Coalisland to Dungannon. This was followed in October by a civil rights march in Derry which was organised by the Derry Housing Action Committee and the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association. The march was brutally repressed by the RUC.[138]
In 2012, activists from Occupy Belfast squatted a Bank of Ireland building in Belfast city centre and used it as a social space.[140] Squatting in Northern Ireland was unaffected by the recent law change in England and Wales, and remains a civil matter.[141]
Scotland
Squatting is a criminal offence in Scotland, punishable by a fine or even imprisonment, under the Trespass (Scotland) Act 1865. The owner or lawful occupier of the property has the right to evict squatters without notice or applying to the court for an eviction order, although when evicting, they cannot do anything that would break the law, for example, use violence.[142][141] Nevertheless, the 19th and early 20th centuries saw various
Wales
In 2010, a representative of the UK Bailiff Company claimed that the number of people squatting in Wales was at its highest for 40 years.[148] The high number of businesses failing in urban Wales has led to squatting becoming a growing issue in large cities like Swansea and Cardiff.[149][150] Experts said "the majority [of squatters] are forced into the lifestyle by financial pressures." Based on the internal database of UK Bailiff Company, there were 100 cases of squatting in 2009, the highest for 40 years, following trends estimated by the Advisory Service for Squatters that squatting has doubled in England and Wales since 1995.[148]
As with England, from 1 September 2012, squatting in a residential building was made a criminal offence subject to arrest, fine and imprisonment.
North America
Squatting in the United States |
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International context |
Principles |
Programs |
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Solution frameworks |
Housing and justice |
Notable squats |
Canada
In Canada, there are two systems to register the ownership of land. Under the land title system, squatter rights, formally known as adverse possession, were abolished. However, under the registry system, these rights have been preserved. If a person occupies land for the required period of time as set out in provincial limitation acts and during that time no legal action is taken to evict them, then the ownership of the land transfers from the legal owner to the squatter.[152]
The
In 2011, the "Occupy Toronto squat team" squatted a basement at 238 Queen Street West and offered to take on a lease for 99 cents per year. They were evicted after eight hours.[161]
United States
In the history of the
Community organizations have abetted squatters in taking over vacant buildings not only as a place to live but also a part of larger campaign to shine a light on inequity in housing and advocate change in housing and land issues.[170] In 2002, the New York City administration agreed to work with eleven squatted buildings on the Lower East Side in a deal brokered by the Urban Homesteading Assistance Board with the condition the apartments would eventually be turned over to the tenants as low-income housing cooperatives.[171]
Latin America and the Caribbean
In
More recently governments have switched from a policy of eradication to one of giving squatters title to their lands, as part of various programs to move people out of slums and to alleviate poverty.[174] Inspired by the World Bank and the thinking of economists such as Hernando de Soto, the programs aim to provide better housing and to promote entrepreneurship, for the former squatters can use their houses as collateral to secure business loans.[175] Former squatters found that it was hard to maintain the property title over time after deaths or divorces and that banks changed their loan requirements so as to exclude them.[174][175] In Nicaragua, squatting occurred after the 1972 Nicaragua earthquake.[176][177]
In Peru, the name given to the squatter zones is pueblos jóvenes (literally "young towns").[178] In the 1980s, there were more than 300 pueblos jóvenes surrounding the capital Lima, housing over one million people.[18]: 76 In Argentina they are known as villa miseria (literally "misery settlement"), and as asentamiento in Uruguay and Guatemala.[18]: 13 [179][180]
The population of Ecuador's capital
Bolivia
From the beginning of the 19th century, there was internal migration from rural areas to cities such as
Brazil
In Brazil, informal settlements are called favelas; a famous example is Rocinha in Rio de Janeiro, home to up to 180,000 people.[186] Favelas are mostly inhabited by the poorest strata of society, and usually lack much infrastructure and public services, but in some cases, already have reached the structure needed for a city. As of 2004, across Brazil there were 25 million people living in favelas.[187] After failed attempts in the 1960s and 1970s to bulldoze slums out of existence, the authorities moved towards a policy of toleration.[18]: 29, 41 In São Paulo, until 1972 favelas were usually demolished; after that time they were permitted, meaning that in the next decade the number of squatters rose to one million.[18]: 83, 92 The largest favela is Heliópolis, with over 200,000 inhabitants as of 2018. It has been officially recognized as a regular neighborhood of the city.[188] There are also a number of squatter buildings in the inner city, the most famous of which was a 22-storey building called Prestes Maia, whose inhabitants were ordered to leave in 2006.[189] Various occupations in buildings and unoccupied areas in big cities, led by groups such as the Homeless Workers' Movement (MTST) or Downtown Roofless Movement (MSTC), have occurred.[190] There are also rural squatter movements in Brazil, such as the Landless Workers' Movement (MST), which organise land occupations. For example, in Pontal do Paraná in the state of Paraná 112 occupations were carried out, housing 6,500 families.[191]
Colombia
The Colombian Constitution of 1991 states that housing is a universal human right.[173] In 2010, Colombia was the country with the second most internally displaced people in the world, at an estimated 4 million.[192] This was the result of an extended civil conflict between rebels, paramilitaries, cocaine traders and the state, which left 40% of rural land without legal title.[192] In the capital Bogotá, squatting has traditionally not been the main technique for land acquisition; people tend to purchase land legally and then subdivide or develop it illegally, creating "pirate neighbourhoods".[193][194] In 1970, 45.9% of Bogotá's population lived in these pirate neighbourhoods, as compared to 1.1% who were squatting.[194]
Haiti
Following the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804), squatters acquired smallholdings across the country.[195] Cité Soleil was founded in 1958 to house workers, then grew rapidly to 80,000 people in the 1980s and 400,000 people in the 1990s. It became the largest slum in Haiti, housing people displaced from other areas. There is little infrastructure and the area frequently becomes flooded.[196] Following the 2010 Haiti earthquake, 1.5 million people were displaced.[197] One year later, 100,000 squatters had left the aid camps and were occupying land next to an official camp called Corail.[198]
Oceania
On island nations such as Fiji, Kiribati and Samoa, informal settlements are known as squatter settlements.[199] Unlike most Pacific Island countries, it is possible to sell or buy customary land in Kiribati. Zoning laws are not implemented by the government and not widely recognised by local people.[200] On the island of Kiritimati, squatters live in both villages and on old Burns Philp copra plantations.[199] On Rarotonga, the largest island in Cook Islands, three informal settlements are inhabited by people from Manihiki, Penrhyn and Pukapuka. The 3,000 dwellers are known as squatters although they have permission to live on the customary land.[201]
Australia
In the 19th century, the British government claimed to own all of Australia and tried to control land ownership. Wealthy farmers of livestock claimed land for themselves and thus were known as squatters.[202] This type of squatting is covered in greater detail at Squatting (Australian history). During the late 1940s the squatting of hundreds of empty houses and military camps, forced federal and state governments to provide emergency shelter during a period when Australians faced a shortage of more than 300 000 homes. In more recent times,[203] Australia has seen occupations in Canberra, Melbourne and Sydney.[204] The Aboriginal Tent Embassy was set up in 1972 and is a permanent protest occupation.[205] The 2016 Bendigo Street housing dispute saw squatters successfully contesting road-building plans. The Midnight Star squat was used as a self-managed social centre in a former cinema, before being evicted after being used as a convergence space during the 2002 World Trade Organization meeting.[206]
See also
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{{cite web}}
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Further reading
- Bailey, R. (1973) The Squatters Penguin: UK ISBN 0140523006
- Bloomfield, F. A. (2021). Ethnography of the uses, practices, and socio-spatial interaction in okupa (squatted) spaces Archived 2021-05-07 at the Wayback Machine. Urbs: Revista de Estudios Urbanos y Ciencias Sociales, 11(1), 81–93.
- Corr, A. (1999) No Trespassing! Squatting, Rent Strikes and Land Struggles Worldwide ISBN 0-89608-595-3
- ADILKNO (1994) Cracking The Movement – Amsterdam squatter history and the movement's relation to the media. Also available online Archived 2005-04-03 at the Wayback Machine
- Cracking The System (2008) – A zine about squats and social centres in Europe inspired by the april2008 initiative. Also available online.
- Curtis, H. & Sanderson, M. (2004) The Unsung Sixties Whiting & Birch ISBN 1861770448
- Dobbz, H. (2013) Nine-Tenths of the Law: Property and Resistance in the United States AK Press ISBN 978-184935118-8
- Kadir, Nazima (2016). The Autonomous Life?: Paradoxes of Hierarchy and Authority in the Squatters Movement in Amsterdam (Reprint ed.). Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1-78499-411-2.
- Katsiaficas, G. (1999) The Subversion of Politics: European Autonomous Social Movements and the Decolonization of Everyday Life Humanity Books
- Owens, L. (2009) Cracking the Movement: Narrating the Decline of the Amsterdam Squatters' Movement ISBN 978-0271034638
- Schmid, L. (2014) Häuserkampf im Berlin der 1980er Jahre: Squatting in Berlin in the 1980s ISBN 978-3863681098
- Squatting Europe Kollective (2013) Squatting in Europe : radical spaces, urban struggles. Squatting Europe Kollective. Wivenhoe [UK]: Minor Compositions. 2013. )
- Squatting Everywhere Kollective (2018) Fighting for spaces, Fighting for our lives: Squatting movements today ISBN 978-3-942885-90-4
- Tobocman, S. (reissued 2016) War in the Neighborhood New York: Autonomedia – a graphic novel about squatting on New York City's Lower East Side in the 1980s
- Various (20 December 2011). "Naked Cities – Struggle in the Global Slums". Mute Magazine. 2 (3). Archived from the original on 2011-12-20.
- Vasudevan, A. (2017). The Autonomous City: A History of Urban Squatting. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78168-787-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-08-20. Retrieved 2019-12-08.
- Waterhouse, R. (2005) The Vision Splendid: A Social and Cultural History of Rural Australia, Fremantle, Curtain University Books
- Wittger, B. (2017) Squatting in Rio de Janeiro : constructing citizenship and gender from below Transcript-Verlag ISBN 978-3837635478