Sri Lankan elephant
Sri Lankan elephant | |
---|---|
Male tusker | |
Female and juveniles in Yala National Park | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Proboscidea |
Family: | Elephantidae |
Genus: | Elephas |
Species: | |
Subspecies: | E. m. maximus
|
Trinomial name | |
Elephas maximus maximus 1758 | |
Range of the Sri Lankan elephant |
The Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) is native to Sri Lanka and one of three recognised subspecies of the Asian elephant. It is the type subspecies of the Asian elephant and was first described by Carl Linnaeus under the binomial Elephas maximus in 1758.[1] The Sri Lankan elephant population is now largely restricted to the dry zone in the north, east and southeast of Sri Lanka. Elephants are present in Udawalawe National Park, Yala National Park, Lunugamvehera National Park, Wilpattu National Park and Minneriya National Park but also live outside protected areas. It is estimated that Sri Lanka has the highest density of elephants in Asia. Human-elephant conflict is increasing due to conversion of elephant habitat to settlements and permanent cultivation.[2]
Characteristics
In general, Asian elephants are smaller than
Sri Lankan elephants are the largest subspecies reaching a shoulder height of between 2 and 3.5 m (6.6 and 11.5 ft), weigh between 2,000 and 5,500 kg (4,400 and 12,100 lb), and have 19 pairs of ribs. Their skin colour is darker than of
The Sri Lankan subspecies designation is weakly supported by analysis of allozyme loci,[8] but not by analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences.[9][10][11]
In July 2013, a dwarf Sri Lankan elephant was sighted in Udawalawe National Park. It was over 1.5 m (5 ft) tall but had shorter legs than usual and was the main aggressor in an encounter with a younger bull.[12]
Distribution and habitat
Sri Lankan elephants are restricted mostly to the lowlands in the dry zone where they are still fairly widespread in north, south, east, north-western, north-central and south-eastern Sri Lanka. A small remnant population exists in the
Former range
In the historical past, elephants were widely distributed from sea level to the highest mountain ranges. They occurred in the dry zone, in the lowland wet zone as well as in the cold damp montane forests. During the
During the British rule, many bull elephants were killed by trophy hunters. One of the British army majors is credited with having shot over 1,500 elephants, and two others are reputed to have shot half that number each. Many other sportsmen have shot about 250–300 animals during this time.[14] Between 1829 and 1855 alone, more than 6,000 elephants were captured and shot under order of colonial British Empire.[15]By the turn of the 20th century, elephants were still distributed over much of the island.
Population trend
The size of wild elephant populations in Sri Lanka was estimated at:
- 19,500 in the early 19th century;[18]
- 10,000 in the early 20th century;[19]
- 7,000 to 8,000 in around 1920;[citation needed]
- between 1,745 and 2,455 individuals in 1969;[20]
- between 2,500 and 3,435 in 1987;[20]
- 1,967 in June 1993 that were fragmented in five regions;[21]
- between 3,150 and 4,400 in 2000;[22]
- 3,150 in 2006;[citation needed]
- 2,900–3,000 in 2007;[citation needed]
- 5,879 in 2011, on the basis of counting elephants at water holes in the dry season.[2]
- 7,500 in 2019;[23]
Name of the park | Size in sq.km | Number of elephants |
---|---|---|
Wilpattu | 1,316.9 | 100–150 |
Ruhuna (Yala) | 1,267.8 | 300–350 |
Gal Oya | 629.4 | 150–200 |
Maduru Oya | 588.5 | 150–200 |
Victoria–Randenigala | 400.8 | 40–60 |
Somawathiya | 377.6 | 50–100 |
Wasgomuwa | 377.1 | 150–200 |
Madhu road | 346.8 | 100–200 |
Udawalawe | 308.2 | 150–200 |
Peak Wilderness | 223.8 | 50–60 |
Flood Plains | 173.5 | 50–100 |
Sinharaja | 88.6 | 10–50 |
Minneriay–Giritale | 66.9 | 300–400 |
Bundala | 62.1 | 80–100 |
Lahugala–Kitulana | 15.5 | 50–100 |
Ecology and behaviour
Elephants are classified as megaherbivores and consume up to 150 kg (330 lb) of plant matter per day. As generalists, they feed on a wide variety of food plants. In Sri Lanka's northwestern region, feeding behaviour of elephants was observed during the period of January 1998 to December 1999. The elephants fed on a total of 116 plant species belonging to 35 families including 27 species of cultivated plants. More than half of the plants were non-tree species, i.e. shrub, herb, grass, or climbers. More than 25% of the plant species belonged to the family Leguminosae, and 19% of the plant species belonged to the family of true grasses. The presence of cultivated plants in dung does not result solely due to raiding of crops as it was observed that elephants feed on leftover crop plants in fallow chenas. Juvenile elephants tend to feed predominantly on grass species.[25]
Food resources are abundant in
Females and calves generally form small, loosely associated
Like all
Threats
During the Sri Lankan Civil War, Sri Lankan elephants were maimed or killed by land mines. Between 1990 and 1994, a total of 261 wild elephants died either as a result of gunshot injuries, or were killed by poachers and land mines. Several elephants stepped on land mines and were crippled.[29]
Between 1999 and the end of 2006, nearly 100 wild elephants were killed every year to protect crops and houses. During drought seasons many elephants damage agricultural land for food. Nearly 80 elephants were killed in northwestern Sri Lanka, 50 in south and east and another 30 in other parts of the country, totaling 160 elephant deaths in 2006 alone. Sri Lanka has thus become the country with the highest elephant mortality rate worldwide.[30] The Sri Lankan Department of Wildlife Conservation official records showed that 407 elephants were killed in 2019. The next three years after that showed 328, 375, and 439 elephant fatalities, respectively.[23][31][32]
Year | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Deaths | 227 | 255 | 250 | 206 | 239 | 205 | 279 | 256 | 258 | 407 | 328 | 375 | 439 | 3724 |
Conservation
Elephas maximus is listed on
The elephant conservation strategy of the Department of Wildlife Conservation aims at conserving as many viable populations as possible in as wide a range of suitable habitats as is feasible. This means protecting elephants both within the system of protected areas and as many animals outside these areas that the land can support and landholders will accept, and not restricting elephants to the protected area network alone.[13]
- In the Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage in Kegalle injured elephants are treated, and orphaned baby elephants cared for. Nearly 70 elephants live here. Captive breeding is also going on.
- The Udawalawe Elephant Transit Centre in Udawalawe National Parkis a rehabilitation centre, where orphaned elephant calves are being kept until they can be released into the wild.
Culture and symbolism
This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2024) |
Elephants were a common element in
Since time immemorial, elephants have been domesticated for uses as work elephants and war elephants in Sri Lanka by the ancient kings. Elephants were exported from the island for hundreds of years and into the Portuguese and Dutch colonial era. The British did not export elephants, instead took to hunting wild elephants and capture of wild for domestication as work elephants continued. Elephant Kraals were organised to capture large herds of elephants in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The capture of wild elephants were regulated under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance in 1937, with the issuance of permits to capture of wild elephants. This practice stopped following the last Elephant Kraal in 1950 by Sir Francis Molamure. A census of the domesticated elephant population in 1970 indicated 532 elephants among 378 owners, while this number had dropped 344 in 1982. These domesticated elephants were used mainly as work elephants and for cultural pageants, the chief of which is the annual Kandy Esala Perahera. In recent years, the domesticated elephant population has dropped further with the need for their labour dropping widespread use of tractors.
However, they remain in use in terrain inaccessible by vehicles for logging and used for tourism. Ownership of elephants are highly prestigious among Singhalese as a status symbol and calls have been made for permission to capture wild elephants or release of orphaned wild elephants in government care to Temples to take part in pageants. Captive breeding in private ownership does not take place due to the long period of unemployability associated with it.[35]
Legal reforms pertaining to the captive elephant population was introduced in 2021, just as a landmark case into dozens of calves being stolen from their herds in a ten-year period collapsed with the Attorney General's Department dropping charges and releasing the elephants to their former owners.[36]
See also
References
- ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1760). "Elephas maximus". Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis [System of nature through the three kingdoms of nature, according to classes, orders, genera and species, with characters, differences, synonyms, places] (in Latin). Vol. 1. Halle an der Saale: Typis et sumtibus Io. Iac. Curt. p. 33.
- ^ a b Fernando, Prithiviraj; Jayewardene, Jayantha; Prasad, Tharaka; Hendavitharana, W.; Pastorini, Jennifer (2011). "Current Status of Asian Elephants in Sri Lanka" (PDF). Gajah. 35: 93–103. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
- JSTOR 3504045.
- ISBN 0813806763. Archivedfrom the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
- ^ a b Jayewardene, J. (1994). The elephant in Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka.
- ^ Haviland, Charles (4 August 2011). "'Longest tusked' elephant in Asia dies in Sri Lanka". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2011.
- ^ "An elegy to Millangoda Raja". archives.dailynews.lk. Archived from the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2022.
- .
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- PMID 12929206.
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- ^ "A Dwarf Elephant With Outsized Attitude". WBUR's The Wild Life. 22 December 2014. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f Santiapillai, Charles; Fernando, Prithivirai; Gunewardene Manori (2006). "A strategy for the conservation of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka" (PDF). Gajah. 25: 91–102. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- ^ Jayewardene, J. (2012). "Elephants in Sri Lankan History and Culture". Living Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-521-43758-5.[page needed]
- ^ Katugaha, H. I. E. (1997). "Tuskers of Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka" (PDF). Gajah. 18 (67–68). Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-87893-518-5.
- ^ "Elephants in Sri Lanka". eleaid. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2015.
- ^ Wanigasundara, M. (1991). "Sri Lanka – Elephants slaughtered in civil war" (PDF). Gajah. 6: 16–17. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- ^ a b Kotagama, S. (1991). "Sri Lanka – Enhancing the survival of elephants" (PDF). Gajah. 6: 24. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- ^ Hendavitharana, W.; Dissanayake, S.; de Silva, M.; Santiapillai, C. (1994). "The Survey of elephants in Sri Lanka" (PDF). Gajah. 12 (1–30). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- ^ Kemf, E.; Santiapillai, C. (2000). Asian elephants in the wild. Gland, Switzerland: WWF.[page needed]
- ^ a b "Sri Lanka elephants: 'Record number' of deaths in 2019". BBC News. 11 January 2020. Archived from the original on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- ^ Important protected areas for the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka. Department of Wildlife Conservation. 2003.
- ^ Samansiri, K. A. P.; Weerakoon, D. K. (2007). "Feeding Behaviour of Asian Elephants in the Northwestern Region of Sri Lanka" (PDF). Gajah. 2: 27–34. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 November 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
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- ^ Alahakoon, J.; Santiapillai, C. (1997). "Elephants: Unwitting victims in Sri Lanka's civil war" (PDF). Gajah. 18: 63–65. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- ^ "Sri Lanka ranks as the country which killed the largest number of Elephants in the world – COPA". EconomyNext. 2020. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
- ^ "Sri Lanka records highest elephant deaths in world". Hindustan Times. 13 December 2020. Archived from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- ^ a b "238 elephants killed in Sri Lanka so far this year, more than 1 daily". Efe. 19 July 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
- ^ Supun, T. G.; Prakash, Lahiru; Wijeratne, A. W.; Fernando, Prithiviraj (2020). "Human-elephant conflict in Sri Lanka: Patterns and extent" (PDF). Gajah. 51: 16–25. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- . Retrieved 15 January 2022.
- ^ Jayewardene, Jayantha. "The care and management of domesticated Asian elephants in Sri Lanka". fao.org. Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on 25 August 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2021.
- ^ Gu, Vanessa. "Sri Lanka prohibits handlers from 'drunk driving' on elephants, bans putting baby elephants to work". insider.com. Archived from the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 14 September 2021.
External links
Media related to Elephas maximus maximus at Wikimedia Commons