Sri Vaishnavism
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Sri Vaishnavism (
The tradition traces its roots to the ancient
The most striking difference between Sri Vaishnavas and other Vaishnava groups lies in their interpretation of the Vedas. While other Vaishnava groups interpret
Etymology
The name Sri Vaishnavism (
History
Theological origins
The tradition traces its roots to the primordial start of the world through Vishnu, and to the texts of Vedic era with both Sri and Vishnu found in ancient texts of the 1st millennium BCE particularly to the Puranas, Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita.[8][14]
Historical origins
The historical basis of Sri Vaishnavism is in the syncretism of two developments. The first is Sanskrit traditions found in ancient texts such as the Vedas and the Agama (Pancaratra), and the second is the Tamil traditions found in early medieval texts (Tamil Prabandham)[18] and practices such as the emotional songs and music of Alvars that expressed spiritual ideas, ethics and loving devotion to god Vishnu.[19][8][9] The Sanskrit traditions likely represent the ideas shared in ancient times, from the Ganges river plains of the northern Indian subcontinent, while the Tamil traditions likely have roots in the Kaveri river plains of southern India, particularly what in modern times are the coastal Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu region.[20]
The tradition was founded by Nathamuni (10th century), who combined the two traditions, by drawing on Sanskrit philosophical tradition and combining it with the aesthetic and emotional appeal of the Bhakti movement pioneers called the Alvars.[10] Sri Vaishnavism developed in Tamil Nadu in the 10th century, after Nathamuni returned from a pilgrimage to Vrindavan in north India (modern Uttar Pradesh).[19]
Nathamuni's ideas were continued by
Around 14th century,
Reverence for Vishnu and Lakshmi
Along with Vishnu, and like Shaivism, the ultimate reality and truth is considered in Sri Vaishnavism to be the divine sharing of the feminine and the masculine, the goddess and the god.[30] Sri (Lakshmi) is regarded as the preceptor of the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya. Goddess Sri has been considered inseparable from god Vishnu, and essential to each other, and to the act of mutual loving devotion. Sri and Vishnu act and cooperate in the creation of everything that exists, and redemption.[30] According to some medieval scholars of Sri Vaishnava theology, states John Carman, Sri and Vishnu do so using "divine knowledge that is unsurpassed" and through "love that is an erotic union".[30] But Sri Vaishnavism differs from Shaivism, in that Vishnu is ultimately the sole creator, preserver and destroyer of the universe while Sri Lakshmi is the medium for salvation, the kind mother who recommends to Vishnu and thereby helps living beings in their desire for redemption and salvation.[30] In contrast, in Shaivism, the goddess (Shakti) is the energy and power of Shiva and she is the equal with different roles, supreme in the role of creator and destroyer.[31]
The prefix
Philosophy
Vishishtadvaita
Sri Vaishnavism's philosophical foundation was established by Ramanuja, who started his Vedic studies with
Theology
— John Carman and Vasudha Narayanan[44]
According to Sri Vaishnavism theology, moksha can be reached by devotion and service to the Lord and detachment from the world. When moksha is reached, the cycle of reincarnation is broken and the soul is united with Vishnu, though maintaining their distinctions, in Vaikuntha, Vishnu's heaven.
God, according to Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnavism philosophy, has both soul and body; all of life and the world of matter is the glory of God's body.[25] The path to Brahman (Vishnu), asserted Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of personal god (saguna Brahman, Vishnu).[25][34][47] Ramanuja's theory posits both Brahman and the world of matter are two different absolutes, both metaphysically real, neither one false or illusive, and saguna Brahman with attributes is also real.[34]
Comparisons with Advaita Vedanta
Ramanuja accepted that the Vedas are a reliable source of knowledge, then critiqued other schools of Hindu philosophy, including Advaita Vedanta, as having failed in interpreting all of the Vedic texts.[48] He asserted, in his Sri Bhashya, that purvapaksin (previous schools) selectively interpret those Upanishadic passages that support their monistic interpretation, and ignore those passages that support the pluralism interpretation.[48] There is no reason, stated Ramanuja, to prefer one part of a scripture and not other, the whole of the scripture must be considered on par.[48][49] One cannot, according to Ramanuja, attempt to give interpretations of isolated portions of any scripture. Rather, the scripture must be considered one integrated corpus, expressing a consistent doctrine.[48] The Vedic literature, asserted Ramanuja, mention both plurality and oneness, therefore the truth must incorporate pluralism and monism, or qualified monism.[48]
This method of scripture interpretation distinguishes Ramanuja from Adi Shankara.[49] Shankara's exegetical approach Samanvayat Tatparya Linga with Anvaya-Vyatireka,[50] states that for proper understanding all texts must be examined in their entirety and then their intent established by six characteristics, which includes studying what is stated by the author to be his goal, what he repeats in his explanation, then what he states as conclusion and whether it can be epistemically verified.[51][52] Not everything in any text, states Shankara, has equal weight and some ideas are the essence of any expert's textual testimony.[49] This philosophical difference in scriptural studies, helped Shankara conclude that the Principal Upanishads primarily teach monism with teachings such as Tat tvam asi, while helping Ramanuja conclude that qualified monism is at the foundation of Hindu spirituality.[48][53][54]
Comparisons with Protestant Christianity and Buddhism
John Carman, a professor at the
Similar teachings on the nature of salvation through grace and compassion, adds Carman, are found in the Japanese scholar Shinran's text on Jodo Shinshu sect of Buddhism, even though non-theistic Buddhism and theistic Sri Vaishnavism do differ in their views on God.[55]
Texts and scholarship
Sri Vaishnavism philosophy is primarily based on interpreting Vedanta, particularly the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Brahma Sutras and the Narayaniya section of the Mahabharata.[8][58] The Vaishnava Agama texts, also called the Pancaratra, has been an important part of Sri Vaishnava tradition.[10][59] Another theological textual foundation of the tradition are the Tamil bhakti songs of the Alvars (7th to 10th century).[12] The syncretic fusion of the two textual traditions is sometimes referred to as the Ubhaya Vedanta, or dual Vedanta.[12] The relative emphasis between the two has been a historic debate within the Sri Vaishnavism tradition,[2] which ultimately led to the schism into the Vatakalai and Tenkalai sub-traditions around the 18th century.[13][14]
Nathamuni
Nathamuni collected the poems of Nammalvar, in the form of Divya Prabandham, likely in the 9th century CE,[60] or the 10th century.[10] One of his lasting contributions was to apply the Vedic theory of music on all the Alvar songs using Sanskrit prosody, calling the resulting choreography as divine music, and teaching his nephews the art of resonant bhakti singing of the Alvar songs.[60] This precedence set the guru-sisya-parampara (teacher-student-tradition) in Sri Vaishnavism.[61] This style of education from one generation to the next, is a tradition called Araiyars, states Guy Beck, which preserved "the art of singing and dancing the verses of the Divya Prabandham" set in the sacred melodies and rhythms described in the Vedic texts.[61]
Nathamuni's efforts to syncretically combine the Vedic knowledge and Alvar compositions, also set the precedence of reverence for both the Vedas and the Alvar bhakti ideas. Nathamuni's scholarship that set Alvar songs in Vedic meter set a historic momentum, and the liturgical and meditational songs continue to be sung in the modern era temples of Sri Vaishnavism, which is part of the service called cevai (Sanskrit: Seva).[60][62]
Nathamuni is also attributed with three texts, all in Sanskrit. Nathamuni, for example asserts,
If "I" did not refer to the true self, there would be no interiority belonging to the soul. The interior is distinguished from the exterior by the concept "I". The aspiration, "May I, having abandoned all suffering, participate freely in infinite bliss", actuates a person whose goal is liberation to study scriptures etc. Were it thought that liberation involved the destruction of the individual, he would run away as soon as the subject of liberation was suggested... The "I", the knowing subject, is the inner self.
— Nyayatattva, Nathamuni, ~9th-10th century, Translator: Christopher Bartley[65]
Yamunacharya
Yamunacharya was the grandson of
Yamunacharya is also credited with Nitya Grantha and Mayavada Khandana. The Nitya Grantha is a ritual text and suggests methods of daily worship of Narayana (Vishnu).[67] The 10th century Mayavada Khandana text, together with Siddhitrayam of Yamunacharya predominantly critiques the philosophy of the traditionally dominant school of Advaita Vedanta in Hindu philosophy, but also critiques non-Vedic traditions.[68]
Ramanuja
The Sri Vaishnava tradition attributes nine Sanskrit texts to Ramanuja
Some modern scholars have questioned the authenticity of all but the three of the largest works credited to Ramanuja; the following texts are considered as authentically traceable to Ramanuja – Shri Bhashya, Vedarthasamgraha, and the Bhagavad Gita Bhashya.[69][71]
Ramanuja's scholarship is predominantly founded on Vedanta, Upanishads in particular.[70][72] He never claims that his ideas were original, but his method of synthesis that combined the Vedic ideas with popular spirituality, states Anne Overzee, is original.[72] Ramanuja, wrote his biographer Ramakrishnananda, was "the culmination of the movement started from the Vedas, nourished by the Alvars, Nathamuni and Yamuncharya".[72]
Ramunaja himself credits the theories he presents, in Vedarthasamgraha, to the ideas of ancient Hindu scholars such as "Bodhyana, Tanka (Brahmanandin), Dramida (Dravidacarya), Guhadeva, Kapardin and Bharuci".[72][73][note 4] The 11th-century scholarship of Ramanuja emphasized the concept of Sarira-Saririn, that is the world of matter and the empirical reality of living beings is the "body of Brahman",[note 5] everything observed is God, one lives in this body of God, and the purpose of this body and all of creation is to empower soul in its journey to liberating salvation.[75][76]
Post Ramanuja period authors
After
Organisation
The Sri Vaishnavism tradition has nurtured an institutional organization of mathas (monasteries) since its earliest days, particularly from the time of Ramanuja. After the death of Yamunacharya, Ramanuja was nominated as the leader of the Srirangam matha, though Yamunacharya and Ramanuja never met.[22] Amongst other things, Ramanuja is remembered in the Sri Vaishnavism tradition for his organizational skills and the lasting institutional reforms he introduced at Srirangam, a system paralleling those at Advaita monasteries of his time and where he studied before joining Srirangam matha. Ramanuja travelled and founded many Sri Vaishnavism mathas across India, such as the one in Melukote.[81][82] The Sri Vaishnavism tradition believes that Ramanuja started 700 mathas, but historical evidence suggests several of these were started later.[83]
The matha, or a monastery, hosted numerous students, many teachers and an institutionalized structure to help sustain and maintain its daily operations. A matha in Vaishnvaism and other Hindu traditions, like a college, designates teaching, administrative and community interaction functions, with prefix or suffix to names, with titles such as Guru, Acharya, Swami, and Jiyar.[85]
A Guru is someone who is a "teacher, guide or master" of certain knowledge.[86] Traditionally a reverential figure to the student in Hinduism, the guru serves as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares experiential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student."[87]
An Acharya refers to either a Guru of high rank, or more often to the leader of a regional monastery.[88][89] This position typically involves a ceremonial initiation called diksha by the monastery, where the earlier leader anoints the successor as Acharya.[88][90] A Swami is usually those who interact with community on the behalf of the matha. The chief and most revered of all Vaishnava monasteries, are titled as Jeer, Jiyar, Jeeyar, or Ciyar.[83]
The Sri Vaishnavism mathas, over time, divided into two, those with Tenkalai (southern) tradition and Vadakalai (northern) tradition of Sri Vaishnavism.[91] The Tenkalai-associated mathas are headquartered at Srirangam, while Vadakalai mathas are associated with Kanchipuram. Both these traditions have from 10th-century onwards considered the function of mathas to include feeding the poor and devotees who visit, hosting marriages and community festivals, farming temple lands and flower gardens as a source for food and worship ingredients, being open to pilgrims as rest houses, and this philanthropic role of these Hindu monasteries continues.[92] In the 15th-century, these monasteries expanded by establishing Ramanuja-kuta in major South Indian Sri Vaishnavism locations.[92] The organizationally important Sri Vaishnavism matha are:
- Tenkalai tradition
- Sriranganarayana Jiyar Matha at Srirangam, Tamil Nadu[91][93]
- Vanamamalai Jiyar Matha at Nanguneri, Tamil Nadu[83][93]
- Perarulala Yatiraja Ramanuja Jiyar Matha at Thirukkurungudi, Tamil Nadu[83][93]
- Yatiraja Matha at Sriperumbudur, Tamil Nadu[93]
- Udaiyavar Koil Jiyar Matha at Alvar Tirunagari, Tamil Nadu[93]
- Emperumanar Jiyar Matha at Tirukkovalur, Tamil Nadu[93]
- Andal Jeeyar Mutt at Srivilliputtur, Tamil Nadu
- Yadugiri Yathiraja Mutt at Melkote, Karnataka[93]
- Periya and Cinna Jiyar Matha at Tirupati and Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh[93]
- Vadakalai tradition
- Brahmatantra Parakala Matha at Mysore, Karnataka[83][93]
- Ahobila Jiyar Matha at Ahobila, Andhra Pradesh[83][93]
- Andavan Ashramam at Srirangam, Tamil Nadu[93]
- Srimad Poundarikapuram Andavan Asramam at Srirangam, Tamil Nadu[93]
Vadakalai and Tenkalai denominations
The Sri Vaishnava tradition is classified into two major denominations called the Vadakalai ("northern art") and Tenkalai ("southern art").
From the ancient period, the Sri Vaishnavism movement flourished in Tamilakam owing to its social inclusiveness, where devotion to the supreme deity (Vishnu) was open without limitation to gender or caste, a tradition led by Alvars in the 7th and the 8th centuries.[97][98] Ramanuja philosophy negated caste, states Ramaswamy.[99] Ramanuja, who led from the Srirangam temple, welcomed outcastes into temples and gave them important roles in temple duties. Medieval temple records and inscriptions suggest that the payments and offerings collected by the temple were shared regardless of caste distinctions.[100]
Scholars offer differing views on the relative approach of the two denominations on caste and gender. Raman states that Tenkalai did not recognise caste barriers and were more liberal in assimilating people from all castes, possibly because this had been the tradition at Srirangam from the earliest days of Sri Vaishnavism.
The Tenkalai tradition brought into their fold artisanal castes (Shudras) into community-based devotional movements. Raman states, "it can almost be said that the Tenkalai represented the anti-caste tendencies while the Vadakalai school championed the cause of purity of the Vedic tenets."[100] The Tenkalai held, adds Raman, that anyone can be a spiritual teacher regardless of caste.[100]
The Vadakalai tradition states Sadarangani in contrast to Raman's views, were the liberal cousin of Tenkalai and therefore more successful in gaining devotees, while in southern Tamil lands Shaivism prospered possibly because of "Tenkalai school of Vaishnavism being narrow and orthodox in approach".[101] The Vadakalai school not only succeeded in northern Tamil lands, she adds, but spread widely as it inspired the egalitarian Bhakti movement in north, west and east India, bringing in Bhakti poet saints from "entire cross-section of class, caste and society".[101]
The Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam belongs to the Tenkalai/Thennacharya tradition and is considered as one of the important sites of Sri Vaishnava tradition. All the functionaries and priests are the descendants of the 74 disciples appointed by Ramanuja and belong to the Tenkalai line without any exceptions.[106]
Characteristics
The Tenkalai place higher importance to
According to the Tenkalai, exalted persons need not perform duties such as Sandhyavandanam; they do so only to set a good example. They don't allow the ringing of bells during worship. The Tenkalai forbid widows to shave (tonsure) their head, quoting the Parashara Smriti.[111] while Vadakalais support the tonsure quoting the Manusmriti,[112]
Demographics
The Tenkalai trace their lineage to
Many of the main preceptors of Sri Vaishnavism and their descendants, before and after Ramanuja, belong to the Tenkalai denomination.
Notable Tenkalai people
- Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920), Indian mathematician.[116][note 7]
- K.S. Krishnan (1898–1961), Indian physicist.[117]
- B.K.S Iyengar (1918–2014), Founder of the "Iyengar Yoga" style of Yoga.[118]
- Alasinga Perumal (1865–1909), Disciple of Swami Vivekananda and one of the founders of Brahmavadin which later became Vedanta Kesari.[119][120][121]
- Sujatha (1935–2008), Writer, editor and engineer; key person behind development of the Electronic Voting Machine, for which he was awarded the VASVIK Industrial Research Award.[122][failed verification]
- Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar (1890–1967), Renowned musician and architect of modern Carnatic music.[123][124][125]
- J. Jayalalithaa (1948-2016), Renowned actress and six times chief minister of Tamil Nadu.[126]
Vadakalai ("northern art") - Vedanta Desika
Characteristics
The Vadakalai are followers of Ramanuja and Vedanta Desika,[127][128][129] who founded the Vadakalai sampradaya[130] based on the Sanskritic tradition.[131] They lay more emphasis on the role of Lakshmi i.e. Sri, and uphold Sanskrit Vedas as the ultimate "Pramanam" or authority, although Ubhaya Vedanta[note 8] is used to infer from and establish the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita. The Vadakalai infer that all of the Alvars compositions are derived from the Vedas, and believe that the latter is the ultimate source to reference and defend the doctrine. The Vadakalai lay emphasis on Vedic norms[note 9] as established by Brahmanical tradition.
The Vadakalai ardently follow the Sanskrit Vedas,[109] and the set of rules prescribed by the Manusmriti and Dharma Shastras.[132][133] The sect is based on the Sankritic tradition,[134] and the set of rules prescribed by the Manusmriti and other Dharma Shastras.[132][133] In Sanskrit the Vadakalai are referred to as Uttara Kalārya.[135]
Traditionally, the Vadakalai believe in practising
The
Guru Parampara
The
The Vadakalai community consists of the following groups, based on the sampradaya followed:
- Pancharatra – Followers of Srimad Azhagiya Singar (Srinivasacharya) of Ahobila Mutt.[141][142][143][144] The majority of Vadakalais belongs to this group.[145] His disciples established Mutts at different places in North India, including Varanasi, Chitrakoot and Pushkar.
- Munitraya – Followers of Srimad Andavan of Andavan Ashramams,[146][147] and Swayamacharyas.[148] The Srirangam Srimad Andavan Ashramam, Poundarikapuram Andavan Ashramam, and most of the present-day Vadagalai 'svayam-acharya purusha' families are directly connected to this acharya parampara, and follow the worship and ritual patterns outlined by]Gopalarya Mahadesikan.
- Periya Andavan Srinivasa Mahadesikan;
- better source needed]
Demographics
Traditionally, places of high importance with significant Vadakalai populations included Kanchipuram, Kumbakonam, Tiruvallur, Mysore and Kurnool district.[135][150][151][152][153][154] However, today much of the people have moved to the big cities.
In Vrindavan, the Jankivallabh Mandir of Keshighat is a prominent Vadakalai Sri Vaishnava monastic institution and is associated with the spiritual lineage of the Ahobila Mutt. The present Azhagiya Singar has visited this well known institution in the past as well as recently. It is presently headed by Swami Sri Aniruddhacharyaji Maharaj.
In Rajasthan the Jhalariya Mutt is one of the most prominent Mutts and its branches have spread over to the neighbouring regions of Gujarat and Maharashtra. Sri Swami Balmukundacharyaji was a distinguished scholar and renowned Acharya of this Mutt.
Notable Vadakalai people
- ISKCON.[155]
- Swatantra party.[156]
- Diwan of Mysore kingdom from 1881 to 1883.[157]
- Imperial Legislative Council (1934–1936), Minister of Public Health and Religious Endowments (Madras Presidency) (1937–1939), Minister of Food and Public Health (Madras Presidency) (1946–1951).[158]
- Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888–1989), an influential Yoga teacher, healer and scholar.
- Agnihotram Ramanuja Tatachariar (1907–2008), renowned vedic scholar, and recipient of two national awards for his contribution to Vedic studies and Sanskrit literature.[159]
- Krishnamachari Srikkanth (b. 1959), Indian Cricket Player
- R. Madhavan (b. 1970), Indian film actor[160]
- Divya Desams
- Abhimana Kshethrams
- Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam
- Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala
- Andal Temple, Srivilliputtur
- Namagiri Thayar Sametha Narasimhaswamy perumal temple, Namakkal
- Sita Ramachandraswamy temple, Bhadrachalam
- Cheluvanarayana Swamy Temple
- Chakrapani Temple, Kumbakonam
- Sarangapani temple, Kumbakonam
- Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangapatna
- Ulagalantha Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram
- Parthasarathy Temple, Triplicane
- Bhu Varaha Swamy temple
- Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram
- Ashtabujakaram
- Adikesava Perumal Temple, Kanyakumari
- Pandava Thoothar Perumal Temple
- Rajagopalaswamy Temple, Mannargudi
- Ulagalantha Perumal Temple, Tirukoyilur
- Mudikondan Kothandaramar Temple
- Thirupullabhoothangudi Temple
- Kola Valvill Ramar Temple, Tiruvelliyangudi
- Vijayaraghava Perumal temple
- Ramaswamy Temple, Kumbakonam
See also
- Ramanujacharya
- Viśiṣṭādvaita
- Vaishnavism
- Alvars
- Iyengar
- Satani
- Namadhari
- Divya Desam
- Srivaishnava-Jaina Conflict resolution inscription
Notes
- ^ Brahman is the metaphysical ultimate unchanging reality in Vedic and post-Vedic Hinduism, and is Vishnu in Sri Vaishnavism.
- ^ These two Vaishnavism traditions are respectively called the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya and the Brahma sampradaya.[41]
- ^ This work is predominantly about the Hindu scriptures called the Upanishads which Ramanuja held as the essence of the Vedas.[70]
- ^ The texts of most of these scholars is lost to history.
- ^ Brahman is the Vedic concept of metaphysical unchanging reality.[74]
- ^ He is also known by many other names, such as Azhagiya Manavala Mamunigal, Sundhara Jamatara Muni, Ramya Jamatara Muni, Ramya Jamatara Yogi, Varavaramuni, Yathindhra pravanar, Kanthopayantha, Ramanujan ponnadi, Soumya jamathru yogindhrar, Koil Selva manavala mamunigal etc. He also has the titles Periya Jeeyar, Vellai Jeeyar, Visthavak sikhamani, Poi IllAtha Manavala Mamuni.
- ^ Ramanujan's father belongs to Thenkalai sect while his mother belongs to Vadakalai sect
- ^ The Sanskrit Vedas and the Dravida Veda, the composition of Alwars, which are held in equal esteem
- ^ Also known as anushtaanams
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- ^ John Carman & Vasudha Narayanan 1989, pp. 3–8.
- ^ a b Matchett 2000, p. 4, 200.
- ^ Matchett 2000, p. 4, 77, 200.
- ^ a b John Carman & Vasudha Narayanan 1989, pp. xvii, 3–4.
- ^ Lester 1966, pp. 266–269.
- ^ a b c d Francis Clooney & Tony Stewart 2004, pp. 167–168.
- ^ a b John Carman & Vasudha Narayanan 1989, pp. 3–4, 36–42, 181.
- ^ a b c d e f Flood 1996, p. 136.
- ^ Morgan 1953.
- ^ a b c John Carman & Vasudha Narayanan 1989, pp. 3–4.
- ^ a b c d e f g Mumme 1987, p. 257.
- ^ a b c d e Bryant 2007, pp. 286–287.
- ISBN 1298966337.
The Sri Vaishnavas among the Telingana Brahmans form a distinct caste called Andhra Vaishnava. They are not sub-divided as Vadgala and Tengala like their co-religionists of Dravida
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- ^ Sharma 1994, p. 374.
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- ^ Bryant 2007, pp. 361–362.
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- ^ Flood 1996, p. 136-137.
- ^ Flood 1996, p. 137: the tenkalai emphasized the Tamil scriptures and surrender to the Lord by his grace.
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- ^ a b c d e f Shyam Ranganathan (2011), Rāmānuja (c. 1017 - c. 1137), IEP, York University
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- ^ Mayeda 2006, pp. 46–53.
- ^ Mayeda & Tanizawa (1991), Studies on Indian Philosophy in Japan, 1963–1987, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 41, No. 4, pages 529–535
- ^ Michael Comans (1996), Śankara and the Prasankhyanavada, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 24, No. 1, pages 49–71
- ^ John Carman 1994, pp. 86–88.
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- ^ John Carman 1994, pp. 196–197, for context see 190-201.
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- ^ Lester 1966, pp. 266–282.
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- ^ a b Alkandavilli Govindacharya (1906). The Life of Râmânujâchârya: The Exponent of the Viśistâdvaita Philosophy. S. Murthy. pp. 9–10 with footnotes.
- ISBN 978-1-4094-8144-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84706-449-3.
- ^ a b Dalal 2010, p. 399.
- ^ C. R. Sreenivasa Ayyangar (1908). The Life and Teachings of Sri Ramanujacharya. R. Venkateshwar. pp. 130 footnote 2.
- ^ M.C. Alasingaperumal (1900). The Brahmavâdin, Volume 5. Madras: Brahmavâdin Press. pp. 466–467.
- ^ ISBN 978-0227680247.
- ^ ISBN 978-0227680247.
- ^ Robert Lester (1966), Ramanuja and Shri Vaishnavism: the Concept of Prapatti or Sharanagati, History of Religion, Volume 5, Issue 2, pages 266-282
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Further reading
- Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna Dallapiccola
- The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual (Univ of South Carolina Press, Columbia, South Carolina, U.S.A. 1 January 1994), by Vasudha Narayanan
- Understanding Hinduism, (ISBN 1844832015), by Vasudha Narayanan