Stamford Raffles

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Lieutenant-Governor of Bencoolen
In office
1818–1824
MonarchsGeorge III
George IV
Preceded byOffice established
Succeeded byOffice abolished
2nd British Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies
In office
1811–1816
Appointed byEarl of Minto
MonarchGeorge III
Preceded byRobert Rollo Gillespie
(acting)
Succeeded byJohn Fendall
Personal details
Born
Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles

(1781-07-05)5 July 1781
Onboard the ship Ann, off the coast of
brain tumour
Resting placeSt Mary's Church, Hendon, England
NationalityBritish
Spouses
(m. 1805; died 1814)
(m. 1817)
Children5
Parents
  • Benjamin Raffles (father)
  • Anne Raffles (mother)
EducationMansion House Boarding School
Known forFounding years of modern Singapore

Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles

The History of Java in 1817, describing the history of the island from ancient times.[3]

Raffles also played a role in further establishing the

maritime trade
between Europe and Asia.

While Raffles was largely credited for the founding of contemporary Singapore, the early running of day-to-day operations was mostly done by

imperialist who projected colonialism onto the 150-person population of Singapore that predated his arrival.[5][6]

Early life

Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles was born on (1781-07-05)5 July 1781 on board the ship Ann, off the coast of Port Morant, Jamaica,[2] to Captain Benjamin Raffles (1739, London – 23 November 1811, Deptford) and Anne Raffles (née Lyde) (1755 – 8 February 1824, London).[1] Benjamin served as a ship master for various ships engaged in the direct trade between England and the West Indies. Although some biographers have suggested that Benjamin was involved in the slave trade, modern historians have refuted such claims. When Benjamin ended his involvement in the West India trade in 1800, it caused his family considerable hardship.[7]

The little money the family had went into sending the young Raffles to the Mansion House Academy,

clerk in London for the British East India Company, the trading company that shaped many of Britain's overseas conquests. Nine years later, in 1804, the 23-year-old Raffles married Olivia Mariamne Devenish, a widow ten years his senior,[1]: 57, 73, 107  who was formerly married to Jacob Cassivelaun Fancourt, an assistant surgeon in Madras, who had died in 1800.[1]
: 59, 69 

In 1805, he was sent to Prince of Wales Island, Malaya, starting his long association with Southeast Asia. He started as assistant secretary, under the Honourable Philip Dundas, the new governor of Penang.[9] At this time, he also made the acquaintance of Thomas Otho Travers, who would accompany him for the next twenty years.[7]

Java Island

British invasion of Java

His knowledge of the

governor-general of India, and he was sent to Malacca
.

In 1811, after the annexation of the

conscripts
with little proper leadership.

The previous Dutch governor,

Meester Cornelis (now Jatinegara). His successor, Governor Jan Willem Janssens, who coincidentally had surrendered to the British five years earlier at the Cape Colony
, mounted a brave but ultimately futile defence at the fortress. The British, led by Colonel Gillespie, stormed the fort and captured it within three hours. Governor Janssens attempted to escape inland but was captured.

The British invasion of Java took a total of forty-five days, during which Raffles was appointed the

Buitenzorg
, and despite having a small subset of Britons as his senior staff, kept many of the Dutch civil servants in the governmental structure.

Rule

During the relatively brief British rule in Java, Raffles negotiated peace, and mounted some significant military expeditions against local Javanese princes to subjugate them to British rule. Most significant of these was the assault on Yogyakarta on 21 June 1812. Yogyakarta was one of the two most powerful indigenous polities in Java. During the attack, the Yogyakarta kraton was badly damaged, and extensively looted by British troops. Raffles seized much of the contents of the court archive. The event was unprecedented in Javanese history. It was the first time an indigenous court had been taken by storm by a European army, and the humiliation of the local aristocracy was profound.[11]

Although peace returned to Central Java in the immediate aftermath of the British assault, the events may have fuelled the deep-seated instability and hostility to European involvement that ultimately gave rise to the Java War of the 1820s.[12] Raffles also ordered an expedition to Palembang in Sumatra to unseat the local sultan, Mahmud Badaruddin II, and to seize the nearby Bangka Island to set up a permanent British presence in the area, in the case of the return of Java to Dutch rule after the end of the War of the Sixth Coalition in Europe.

Olivia Mariamne Raffles, Raffles's first wife, erected by him along the Kanarielaan in the National Botanical Gardens (now the Bogor Botanical Gardens). Raffles re-landscaped these gardens, which were established in 1744 in Buitenzorg (now Bogor), West Java
.

During his lieutenant-governorship, Raffles placed some restrictions on the local

slave trade in line with wider British policy across its Asian territories, although slavery remained widespread and Raffles himself was served by a large retinue of slaves at his official residences in Java.[13] Raffles also attempted a replacement of the Dutch system of forced agricultural deliveries-in-kind with a cash-based land tenure system of land management, probably influenced by the earlier anti-feudal critiques of Dirk van Hogendorp He was advised by a holdover from the previous Dutch regime on Java, the president of the High Court of Java, Herman Warner Muntinghe, especially in the matter of the reform of the public finances of the colony, and its system of taxation.[14]

Under Raffles's aegis, a large number of ancient monuments in Java were systematically catalogued for the first time. The first detailed English-language account of Prambanan was prepared by Colin Mackenzie, while the Buddhist temple of Borobudur was surveyed and cleared of vegetation by H. C. Cornelius.[15]

When his wife, Olivia, died on 26 November 1814, Raffles was devastated. In 1815, he left again for England shortly before the island of Java was returned to control of the Netherlands following the

St. Helena
, but found him unpleasant and unimpressive.

Interlude in England

In 1817, Raffles wrote and published The History of Java,[16] describing the history of the island from ancient times as well as its geography, flora, and fauna.

In 1817, Raffles was created a Knight Bachelor by the Prince Regent George IV, whose daughter, Princess Charlotte, was particularly close to him. At the publication of the book, he also stopped using the name 'Thomas', preferring to use his middle name, 'Stamford', possibly to avoid confusion amongst his associates with Sir Thomas Sevestre, or his cousin, Thomas Raffles, who both bore the same first name.

On 22 February, he married his second wife, Sophia Hull,[9][17][18] and later set sail to Bencoolen (present-day Bengkulu in Indonesia) to take up his new post with his new wife.

Bencoolen and Malaya

Territory of Bencoolen (pink)
Stamford Raffles

Raffles arrived in Bencoolen on 19 March 1818, where he was appointed as the

cockfighting and such games. To replace the slaves, he used a contingent of convicts
, already sent to him from India.

It was at this point that he realised the importance of a British presence that both challenged the Dutch

or Bencoolen, made it impossible for the British to abandon such unprofitable colonies in such proximity to the Dutch in Java.

The competition in the area, between Raffles and the aggressive Dutch

Bintan was also under consideration. Despite the fact that Francis Light overlooked the island before settling upon Penang in 1786, the Riau Archipelago was an attractive choice just to the south of the Malay Peninsula, for its proximity to Malacca
.

In his correspondences with

Calcutta, Raffles also emphasised the need to establish a certain amount of influence with the native chiefs, which had greatly waned since the return of the Dutch. Raffles sent Thomas Travers
as an ambassador to the Dutch, to possibly negotiate an expansion of British economic interests. When this failed, and when Raffles's own expeditions into his new dominion found only treacherous terrain and few exportable goods, his desire to establish a better British presence was cemented.

However, the Anglo-Dutch Convention of 1814 was not completely clear, especially on the issue of certain possessions such as

Sultanate of Minangkabau
. Yet, as Raffles confirmed with the sultan regarding the absolute British influence of the area, he realised that the local rulers had only limited power over the well-cultivated and civilised country, and the treaty was largely symbolic, and had little actual force.

Founding of modern Singapore

Statue of Sir Stamford Raffles in Singapore, based on the original by Thomas Woolner

Major-General

British Resident of Malacca, had been attempting to negotiate commercial treaties with the local chiefs of the Riau Archipelago, especially before Raffles's arrival. Farquhar was compelled to sign the treaty not with the official head of the sultanate, but rather, the Raja Muda (Regent or Crown Prince) of Riau
. He noted it as a success, and reported it as such to Raffles.

Raffles sailed to Malacca in late 1818, to personally secure a British presence in the Riau area, especially Singapura, which was favoured by him both through the readings of Malayan histories, and by Farquhar's explorations. Despite Lord Hastings' less-than-stellar opinion of Raffles before (which had necessitated his trip to England to clear his name at the end of his tenure as Lieutenant-Governor of Java), the now well-connected and successful Raffles was able to secure permission to set up a settlement. At this point in Singaporean history, the name Lion City was applied. The city was in a strategically advantageous position; however, he was ordered not to provoke the Dutch, and his subsequent actions were officially disavowed by the British government.

In London,

Lord Castlereagh attempted to quell Dutch fears, and continuing efforts were made to reach an agreement between the nations that eventually became the Anglo-Dutch Treaty
of London of 1824. As well as the treaty, instructions were sent out to Raffles to undertake far less intrusive actions; however, the long distance between the Far East and Europe meant that the orders had no chance of reaching Raffles in time.

Establishment

After a brief survey of the

to Mount Muar".

Although Hussein Shah had had no previous contact with the British, he had certainly heard of the strength of the Royal Navy, and was in no position to argue against the terms. Raffles reassured him that the Dutch posed no threat in the area. Hussein Shah had been the crown Prince of Johor, but while he was away in Pahang to get married, his father died, and his younger brother was made sultan, supported by some of the court officials and the Dutch. To circumvent the situation of having to negotiate with a sultan influenced by the Dutch, Raffles decided to recognise, on behalf of the British Crown, Hussein Shah as being the rightful ruler of Johor.

Farquhar's attempt to establish a more favourable treaty in Rhio (Riau) was met with greater challenge, as the Dutch were present, and made for a rather awkward position. The Dutch were alarmed, and sent a small contingent to the island. Despite a covert offer of subterfuge against the Dutch offered by the Raja of Rhio (Riau), Farquhar returned, and an official protest was sent by the Raja to Java regarding the matter.

Raffles declared the foundation of what was to become modern Singapore on 6 February, securing the transfer of control of the island to the East India Company. With much pomp and ceremony, the official treaty was read aloud in languages representing all nations present, as well as the Malay and Chinese inhabitants.

Sultan Hussein Shah was paid 5,000

£287,000 and £172,000 now.[20][21]

Farquhar was officially named the

Strait of Singapore
, and a small military presence was established alongside the trading post. After issuing orders to Farquhar and the remaining Europeans, Raffles left the next day, 7 February 1819.

Achin, and the early conflict with the Dutch

Raffles also planned to start a British presence in

Achin, on the northern tip of Sumatra. As soon as he had departed, the Raja of Rhio (Riau) sent letters to the Dutch, disclaiming the deal, protesting innocence, and blaming British encroachment. Meanwhile, in Malacca, the Dutch acted at once, commanding that no Malays could go to Singapore. Raffles's bold claim of Singapore created a curious geographic situation: although Penang was clearly closer in distance to Singapore, Raffles, in his capacity as Lieutenant-Governor of Bencoolen, was nominally still in control. This undoubtedly irked the authorities in Penang, to the point where they refused to send any sepoys
to Singapore to complete the garrison.

Official Dutch complaints came before the end of the month, and Raffles attempted to appease the situation by instructing Farquhar to not interfere with the politics of surrounding islands. Despite numerous threats and serious considerations by the Dutch governor-general

Tengku Long was claimed to be a pretender to the throne, and, since the succession
laws in the Malay sultanates were not clear cut, treaties signed between native rulers and the European powers always seemed to be on the verge of invalidation; especially if a sultan should be deposed by one of his siblings or other pretenders.

Nonetheless, amidst uncertainty and intrigue, Raffles landed in Achin on 14 March 1819, with begrudging help of Penang. Once again, it seems that multiple people were in power, but none wanted to formally deal with the British. The hostile atmosphere created allowed Raffles to cancel the only meeting he was able to arrange, with

governor of Penang, to send funds to bolster Singapore. Finally Raffles was capable of convincing his fellow commissioners to sign a treaty with Jauhar al-Alam Shah, the ruler of Achin, which installed a British Resident
, as well as guaranteeing the exclusivity of bilateral trade.

By the time Raffles had returned to Singapore, on 31 May, much of the immediate crisis that the colony had caused in Penang and Calcutta had passed. By then, the initial five-hundred villagers had grown to become five-thousand merchants, soldiers, and administrators, packed onto the island. Raffles was determined to destroy the Dutch mercantile monopoly in the area, to replace it with a gateway for trade with China and Japan. The latter he had attempted but failed to reach an agreement with while governing Java.

First year of Singapore

While in Singapore, Raffles established schools and churches in the native languages. He allowed

segregate the population, separated by a river; carriage roads were built, and cantonments
constructed for the soldiers. Otherwise, no other duties were imposed.

Confident that Farquhar would follow his instructions well, Raffles sailed for Bencoolen once again on 28 June.

Bencoolen, once again

Raffles was still the

free port as well. The currency was regulated and, as he had an excess of out-of-work civil servants, they formed committees to advise him on the daily running of the colony. However, Bencoolen was not as self-sufficient as Singapore. The area was poor and disease-ridden: the first reports from the committees reflected very poorly upon the condition of the colony. Unlike the salutary neglect
Raffles granted upon Singapore, he delayed European-inspired reforms, emphasising only the cultivation of whatever land was available.

Native authorities were given power in their respective districts, and were answerable only to the lieutenant-governor. The slave-debtor system was brought in, instead of the old slavery system that Raffles had abolished in Java, Borneo, and initially in Bencoolen. Slave-debtors were registered, and educational reforms started to focus on children, instead of the entire population. Raffles looked into a long-term plan for the slow reform of Bencoolen.

Unlike many other European adventurers, Raffles did not impose upon the colonised the alien language or culture of the coloniser. In addition to preserving the

missionaries
in all of his colonies.

Consolidation of the Eastern Isles

Colonel Bannerman's death in Penang in October 1819 brought new opportunities for Raffles to expand his power to also include the other minor British factories and outposts; from

East Indies
. During his sojourn, he had the opportunity to argue for free trade, and the protection of the private enterprise. Education and the retention of small British outposts were also discussed.

The Dutch claim on the Sultanate of Johore and hence, Rhio, and the diplomatic exchanges between Baron Godert van der Capellen and Calcutta continued throughout this time. The legitimacy of the British treaties was also questioned once again, but finally, as Singapore grew at an exponential rate, the Dutch gave up their claim on the island, allowing the colony to continue as a British possession. However, the pressures put upon Calcutta ensured that no single governor of all British possessions in the Strait or on Sumatra was appointed, and Raffles, whose health was slowly ailing, returned to Bencoolen.

Administration of Bencoolen, 1820–1822

Raffles returned to Bencoolen in ill-health, but as his health improved, he continued on his quest to learn about the island he now called home. He studied the

Sikh religion
in certain parts of Sumatra.

By early 1820, Tengku Long had firmly established himself as the

Resident of Singapore, replacing Farquhar. Upon his arrival, Travers found the colony a delightful smörgåsbord
of different races and cultures, numbering over six thousand. He also found that Singapore's trade was slowly overtaking that of Java.

As in Java, Raffles collected samples of local species of plant and animal, as well as describing them in his journals. He located other tribes, and recorded their customs, especially their religions and laws. Bringing the island of Nias under British rule, he noted its civilised state and high production yields of rice.

Yet the production of food remained a problem. In Bencoolen, Raffles paid special attention to the agricultural methods of the Chinese, including an introduction to the only issue of Proceedings of the Agricultural Society. To remedy the shortages, his employer, the East India Company, concerned themselves only with profit-taking. Even as Raffles lived like a country gentleman, and ran his colony like an estate, his expenditure on nature preservation was seriously frowned upon. In both Calcutta and London, they discussed his removal from office, while Castlereagh continued negotiations with the Dutch regarding the ongoing diplomatic conflicts.

Luckily, the Singapore issue had its supporters in the House, so as negotiations continued in Europe, Raffles remained largely idle in Bencoolen. The only major issue, outside the politics of the local sultans, involved the replacement of Farquhar, who decided that he had no intention of leaving his post voluntarily, causing a moment of tension between him and Travers. Raffles's request for Travers to deliver dispatches to India nullified the issue late in the year, and Farquhar remained in charge of Singapore, with its survival still in doubt for many in both India and London, who believed that it would either be handed over to the Dutch, or taken violently by force when Castlereagh's negotiations had ended. Still William Farquhar stirred up more trouble, especially with local English merchants over trivial matters of self-importance, and overreaction over small infractions of white traders, for some of which he was reprimanded by Calcutta officially. Public works, commissioned by Raffles but undertaken by Farquhar, were becoming overwhelmingly expensive.

Personal tragedies also started for Raffles. His eldest son, Leopold Stamford (b. 1818), died during an epidemic on 4 July 1821. The oldest daughter, Charlotte (b. 1818), was also sick with

governor-general of India
, replacing Hastings. As Raffles grew restless and depressed, he decided to visit Singapore before retiring and heading home to England. Accompanying him would be his wife Sophia and their only surviving child, Ella.

Raffles was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society (AAS) in 1822.[22]

Singapore (1822–1823)

The Plan of the Town of Singapore, also known more commonly as the Jackson Plan or Raffles Town Plan

Raffles returned to Singapore in October 1822. Raffles was pleased with the fact that Singapore had grown exponentially in such a short period of time. The colony was a bustling hub of trade and economic activity. Even so, Farquhar's administration was deemed unsatisfactory, for example, he allowed merchants to encroach on government areas, permitted vices such as gambling, and tolerated

slave trade.[23]: 38 [24] In response, Raffles instituted new policies, and set up a committee headed by the colony's engineer, Philip Jackson to draw up a plan, now known as the Jackson Plan or Raffles Town Plan, based on instructions by Raffles. The plan was still racially segregated, giving the best land to the Europeans. Yet it was considered remarkably scientific for the time. Raffles also supervised the levelling of a small hill south of Singapore River to create Commercial Square (now Raffles Place).[25]

It was also during the re-planning and reconstruction of the port town that Farquhar dramatically argued with Raffles, who now considered him unfit for the position of

. In March 1823, coincidentally the same day he was replaced, he received an official reprimand from London for the takeover of Nias.

Raffles convened a meeting on 1 April 1823, with the intention of opening a Malay college in Singapore, based on his observations on his years in southeast Asia, and his belief of the importance of both the local and the

European languages. Raffles personally gave $2,000[clarification needed] towards the effort, the East India Company gave $4,000, with the contributions from various subscribers totalling $17,495. This would be the founding of Raffles Institution.[26]

In the final few weeks of his stay in Singapore, in 1823, Raffles drafted a series of administrative regulations for Singapore that aimed to govern Singapore in a fair manner, but also reflected his stance on various moral and social issues. A registration system was first instituted for all land, regardless of ownership, and the repossession of the land by the government if land remained unregistered. This act asserted the power of the

criminal act
.

A view of Singapore from the sea, sketched by Lt. Philip Jackson shortly before Raffles's departure in 1823. Found amongst documents belonging to Raffles[27]

Finally, on 9 June 1823, feeling that his work in establishing Singapore was finished, he boarded a ship for home, but not before a stop in Batavia to visit his old home, and adversary, van der Capellen. A final stop in Bencoolen followed. Tragedy befell Raffles once more when his youngest daughter, Flora Nightingall, born on 19 September, died a little over one month later on 28 November while still in Bencoolen.

On 2 February 1824, Raffles and his family embarked on the East Indiaman Fame for England. She caught fire 50 miles (80 kilometres) from Bencoolen the evening after she sailed. All aboard were able to take to her boats and were saved, although the ship herself was totally destroyed.[28][29] The fire claimed most of his drawings and papers.[30]

The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 finally settled the score in the East Indies. The British gained dominance in the north, while the entirety of Sumatra became Dutch. The Malay Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent were both free of Dutch interference. Raffles finally returned to England on 22 August 1824, over a year after he left Singapore. His longest tenure in Singapore was only eight months, but he was considered the founder of Singapore nevertheless.

Return to Britain and death

Arms of Stamford Raffles

Upon arrival in England in poor health, Sir Stamford and Lady Raffles convalesced in Cheltenham until September 1824, after which he entertained distinguished guests in both London and his home. He also made plans to stand for parliament, but this ambition was never realised. They moved to a London address at Berners Street at the end of November 1824, just in time to have a war of words with Farquhar, who had also arrived in the city, in front of the Court of Directors of the East India Company regarding Singapore. Despite raising several severe charges against Raffles, Farquhar was ultimately unable to discredit him; he was denied a chance to be restored to Singapore, but was given a military promotion instead.[clarification needed]

With the Singapore matter settled, Raffles turned to his other great interests: botany and zoology. He was elected a member of the Linnean Society of London on 5 February 1825.[31] Raffles was a founder (in 1825) and first president (elected April 1826) of the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) and the London Zoo.

Meanwhile, he was not only not granted a pension, but was called to pay over twenty-two thousand

pounds sterling
for losses incurred during his administration. Raffles replied by clarifying his actions: and he decided to move to his country estate, Highwood, North London, but before the issue was resolved, he was already much too ill.

He died of apoplexy at Highwood House in Mill Hill, north London, on his 45th birthday, 5 July 1826. His estate amounted to around ten thousand pounds sterling, which was paid to the company to cover his outstanding debt. Because of his anti-slavery position, he was refused burial inside the local parish church (St Mary's Church, Hendon) by the vicar, Theodor Williams, whose family had made its money in Jamaica in the slave trade.[citation needed] A brass tablet was finally placed in 1887, but the actual whereabouts of his body was not known until 1914, when it was found in a vault. When the church was extended in the 1920s, his tomb was incorporated into the body of the building, and a square floor tablet with inscription marked the spot.

Raffles was survived by his second wife Sophia Hull and daughter Ella, and predeceased by his other four children in

Bencoolen.[18]

Ella died in 1840, aged nineteen. Sophia remained at Highwood House until her death in 1858, at the age of 72. Her tomb and memorial may be seen in St Paul's Church graveyard, Mill Hill, close to the rear door of the church. All his other children remained buried overseas. Thirty-three years after his death, Raffles' substantial collection of Indonesian antiquities and ethnography was donated to the British Museum by his nephew, Rev William Charles Raffles Flint.[9]

Memorial sculpture in Westminster Abbey, London

Raffles statue in Westminster Abbey

A life-size figure in

Francis Chantrey depicts Raffles in a seated position in Westminster Abbey, London, England. The sculpture was completed in 1832, and it is in the north choir aisle.[32]

The inscription reads:

To the memory of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, L.L.D. F.R.S. Lieut. Governor of Java and first President of the Zoological Society of London. Born 1781 Died 1826. Selected at an early age to conduct the government of the British conquests in the Indian ocean, by wisdom, vigour, and philanthropy, he raised Java to happiness and prosperity unknown under former rulers. After the surrender of that island to the Dutch, and during his government in Sumatra he founded an emporium at Singapore, where in establishing freedom of person as the right of the soil, and freedom of trade as the right of the port, he secured to the British flag the maritime superiority of the eastern seas. Ardently attached to science, he laboured successfully to add to the knowledge and enrich the museums of his native land, in promoting the welfare of the people committed to his charge, he sought the good of his country, and the glory of God.

Legacy

In Singapore, and in other parts of the world, his name lives on in numerous entities, including:

Natural history

A number of species are named after him:

While in Sumatra Raffles commissioned artists to make drawings of his collections of animals and plants. The surviving drawings are held by the British Library.[30]

Most natural history specimens collected by Raffles were lost with the sinking of Fame.[30] A few sent earlier, and some collected later, survive at the Natural History Museum, London and World Museum.

  • Ferruginous Partridge NML-VZ D512g collected in Sumatra by Stamford Raffles, held at World Museum.
    Ferruginous Partridge NML-VZ D512g collected in Sumatra by Stamford Raffles, held at World Museum
    .
  • Lesser Whistling Duck NML-VZ D843b collected in Sumatra by Stamford Raffles held in World Museum.
    Lesser Whistling Duck NML-VZ D843b collected in Sumatra by Stamford Raffles held in World Museum
    .

Places and landmarks

Business

Education

Sports and recreation

Transport

Two statues in Singapore, one made of white marble along the Singapore River, while another made of bronze in front of the Victoria Theatre and Concert Hall.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ This led to an incident in Palembang where Muntinghe had an emissary of Raffles, one captain Salmond, deported to Batavia.[19]

References

  1. ^
    Singapore Infopedia
    .
  2. ^ .
  3. ^ Raffles, Thomas Stamford (2015). The History of Java, v. 1–2.
  4. ^ "William Farquhar, not Raffles, is true founder of S'pore: UK magazine book review". mothership.sg. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
  5. ^ "Head Count: The History of Census-taking in Singapore". National Library, Singapore. 21 January 2020.
  6. ^ "Glory and disgrace: The complex legacy of Singapore founder Raffles". France 24. 26 February 2019. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
  7. ^ a b Cornelius, Vernon (24 August 2016). "Family of Sir Stamford Raffles | Infopedia". eResources.NLB.Gov.sg. National Library Board, Government of Singapore. InfopediaRafflesFamily. Archived from the original on 22 June 2017. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  8. OCLC 940527190
    .
  9. ^ a b c Anon (n.d.). "Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (biographical details)". BritishMuseum.org. London, England: British Museum. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
  10. .
  11. ^ Ricklefs, M. C. (2008). A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200 (4th ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
  12. ^ Carey, Peter (2008). The Power of Prophecy: Prince Dipanagara and the End of an Old Order in Java, 1785–1855.
  13. ^ Hahn, Emily (1946). Raffles of Singapore.
  14. JSTOR 27859777
    .
  15. ^ Miksic, John (1990). Borobudur: Golden Tales of the Buddhas.
  16. The History of Java. Black, Parbury and Allen for the Hon. East India Company
    , reprinted in the Cambridge Library Collection, 2010.
  17. ^ "Lady Sophia Raffles (biographical details)". BritishMuseum.org. London, England: British Museum. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
  18. ^ a b "Sophia Hull | Infopedia". eResources.NLB.Gov.sg. Singapore: National Library Board, Government of Singapore. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
  19. ^ "Ch. XIV Asia. The protest of Sir S. Raffles against the Proceedings of the Dutch in the Malayan Archipelago Treaties formed with the Princes of Sumatra". The Annual Register: 216–232. 1820. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
  20. ^ Blagden, C.O. (1921). "Historical: Singapore prior to 1819". In Makepeace, Walter (ed.). One Hundred Years of Singapore: being some account of the capital of the straits from its foundation by Sir Stamford Raffles on the 6th February 1819 to the 6th February 1919. London: John Murray. pp. 10.
  21. ^ "Currency converter: 1270–2017". NationalArchives.Gov.uk. The National Archives. Retrieved 23 January 2019.
  22. ^ "American Antiquarian Society Members Directory". AmericanAntiquarian.org. American Antiquarian Society (AAS).
  23. ^ .
  24. ^ Khoo, Kevin. "William Farquhar's pragmatism: another perspective on Raffles vision for Singapore". NAS.Gov.sg. National Archives of Singapore. Archived from the original on 23 October 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  25. ^ Charles Burton Buckley (1902). An anecdotal history of old times in Singapore. Singapore, Printed by Fraser & Neave, limited. pp. 88–89 – via Archive.org.
  26. ^ Charles Burton Buckley (1902). An anecdotal history of old times in Singapore. Vol. 1. Singapore: Fraser & Neave. p. 122.
  27. JSTOR 41502903
    .
  28. ^ "From Lloyd's Marine List – July 20". Caledonian Mercury. No. 16060. 24 July 1824.
  29. ^ "The Marine List". Lloyd's List. No. 5929. London, England. 30 July 1824.
  30. ^
    OCLC 316836618
    .
  31. ^ "Picture Quiz". The Linnean. 12 (3): 14–18. October 1996.
  32. ^ Roger Nicholson; Robert Nicholson (1966). 'The Abbey Scientists' Hall. London: A.R. p. 49.
  33. ^ International Plant Names Index.  Raffles.
  34. ^
    Transactions of the Linnean Society
    .
  35. ^ "Stamford Primary School". Roots.sg. Roots. Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2019.

Sources

Further reading

External links

Government offices
Preceded by
Lieutenant-Governor of the Dutch East Indies

1811–1816
Succeeded by
John Fendall Jr.
Preceded by
newly created
Bencoolen
Lieutenant-Governor of Bencoolen

1818–1824
Succeeded by
abolished
John Prince
Bencoolen