Lhasa Tibetan
Lhasa Tibetan | |
---|---|
བོད་སྐད་ | |
U-Tsang | |
Native speakers | (1.2 million cited 1990 census)[1] |
| |
Early forms | |
Official status | |
Official language in | China |
Regulated by | Committee for the Standardisation of the Tibetan Language[note 1] |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | bo |
ISO 639-2 | tib (B) bod (T) |
ISO 639-3 | bod |
Glottolog | tibe1272 |
Linguasphere | 70-AAA-ac |
Lhasa Tibetan
In the traditional "three-branched" classification of the
Registers
Like many languages, Lhasa Tibetan has a variety of language registers:
- ཕལ་སྐད (Wylie: phal skad, literally "demotic language"): the vernacular speech.
- ཞེ་ས (Wylie: zhe sa, "honorifics or deference, courtesy"): the formal spoken style, particularly prominent in Lhasa.
- ཡིག་སྐད (Wylie: yig skad, literally "letters language" or "literary language"): the written literary style; may include ཆོས་སྐད chos skad below.[7]
- ཆོས་སྐད (Wylie: chos skad, literally "doctrine language" or "religious language"): the literary style in which the scriptures and other classical works are written.[8]
Grammar
Syntax and word order
Tibetan is an
- adjectives generally follow nouns in Tibetan, unless the two are linked by a genitive particle
- objects and adverbs precede the verb, as do adjectives in copular clauses
- a noun marked with the genitive case precedes the noun which it modifies
- demonstratives and numerals follow the noun they modify.
Nouns and pronouns
Tibetan nouns do not possess grammatical gender, although this may be marked lexically, nor do they inflect for number. However, definite human nouns may take a plural marker ཚོ <tsho>.
Tibetan has been described as having six cases: absolutive, agentive, genitive, ablative, associative and oblique. These are generally marked by particles, which are attached to entire noun phrases, rather than individual nouns. These suffixes may vary in form based on the final sound of the root.
Personal pronouns are inflected for number, showing singular, dual and plural forms. They can have between one and three registers.
The Standard Tibetan language distinguishes three levels of demonstrative: proximal འདི <'di> "this", medial དེ <de> "that", and distal ཕ་གི <pha-gi> "that over there (yonder)". These can also take case suffixes.
Verbs
Verbs in Tibetan always come at the end of the clause. Verbs do not show agreement in person, number or gender in Tibetan. There is also no voice distinction between active and passive; Tibetan verbs are neutral with regard to voice.[9]
Tibetan verbs can be divided into classes based on volition and valency. The volition of the verb has a major effect on its morphology and syntax. Volitional verbs have imperative forms, whilst non-volitional verbs do not: compare ལྟོས་ཤིག <ltos shig> "Look!" with the non-existent *མཐོང་ཤིག <mthong shig> "*See!". Additionally, only volitional verbs can take the egophoric copula ཡིན <yin>.[10]
Verbs in Tibetan can be split into monovalent and divalent verbs; some may also act as both, such as ཆག <chag> "break". This interacts with the volition of the verb to condition which nouns take the ergative case and which must take the absolutive, remaining unmarked.[10] Nonetheless, distinction in transitivity is orthogonal to volition; both the volitional and non-volitional classes contain transitive as well as intransitive verbs.
The
Evidentiality is a well-known feature of Tibetan verb morphology, gaining much scholarly attention,[11] and contributing substantially to the understanding of evidentiality across languages.[12] The evidentials in Standard Tibetan interact with aspect in a system marked by final copulae, with the following resultant modalities being a feature of Standard Tibetan, as classified by Nicolas Tournadre:[13]
- Assertive
- Allocentric intentional egophoric
- Allocentric intentional egophoric/Imminent danger
- Experiential egophoric
- Habitual/Generic assertive
- Inferential
- Intentional egophoric
- Intentional/Habitual egophoric
- Receptive egophoric
- Testimonial
Numerals
Unlike many other languages of
In scientific and astrological works, the numerals, as in Vedic Sanskrit, are expressed by symbolical words.[14]
The written numerals are a variant of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, forming a base-10 positional counting system[15] that is attested early on in Classical Tibetan texts.
Tibetan Numerals | ༠ | ༡ | ༢ | ༣ | ༤ | ༥ | ༦ | ༧ | ༨ | ༩ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Devanagari numerals | ० | १ | २ | ३ | ४ | ५ | ६ | ७ | ८ | ९ |
Bengali numerals
|
০ | ১ | ২ | ৩ | ৪ | ৫ | ৬ | ৭ | ৮ | ৯ |
Arabic numerals | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
Tibetan makes use of a special connector particle for the units above each multiple of ten. Between 100 and 199, the connective དང dang, literally "and", is used after the hundred portion.[15] Above ས་ཡ saya million, the numbers are treated as nouns and thus have their multiples following the word.[15]
The numbers 1, 2, 3 and 10 change spelling when combined with other numerals, reflecting a change in pronunciation in combination.[15]
Written
Tibetan |
Wylie transliteration | Arabic | Written
Tibetan |
Wylie transliteration | Arabic
numerals |
Written
Tibetan |
Wylie transliteration | Arabic
numerals | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
གཅིག | gcig | 1 | ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་གཅིག | nyi shu tsa gcig | 21 | བཞི་བརྒྱ | bzhi bgya | 400 | ||
གཉིས | gnyis | 2 | ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་གཉིས | nyi shu rtsa gynis | 22 | ལྔ་བརྒྱ | lnga bgya | 500 | ||
གསུམ | gsum | 3 | ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་གསུམ | nyi shu rtsa gsum | 23 | དྲུག་བརྒྱ | drug bgya | 600 | ||
བཞི | bzhi | 4 | ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་བཞི | nyi shu rtsa bzhi | 24 | བདུན་བརྒྱ | bdun bgya | 700 | ||
ལྔ | lnga | 5 | ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་ལྔ | nyi shu rtsa lnga | 25 | བརྒྱད་བརྒྱ | brgyad bgya | 800 | ||
དྲུག | drug | 6 | ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་དྲུག | nyi shu rtsa drug | 26 | དགུ་བརྒྱ | dgu bgya | 900 | ||
བདུན | bdun | 7 | ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་བདུན | nyi shu rtsa bdun | 27 | ཆིག་སྟོང | chig stong | 1000 | ||
བརྒྱད | brgyad | 8 | ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་བརྒྱད | nyi shu rtsa brgyad | 28 | ཁྲི | khri | (a unit of) 10,000 | ||
དགུ | dgu | 9 | ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་དགུ | nyi shu rtsa dgu | 29 | |||||
བཅུ | bcu | 10 | སུམ་ཅུ | sum cu | 30 | སུམ་ཅུ་སོ་གཅིག | sum cu so gcig | 31 | ||
བཅུ་གཅིག | bcu gcig | 11 | བཞི་བཅུ | bzhi bcu | 40 | བཞི་བཅུ་ཞེ་གཅིག | bzhi bcu zhe gcig | 41 | ||
བཅུ་གཉིས | bcu gnyis | 12 | ལྔ་བཅུ | lnga bcu | 50 | ལྔ་བཅུ་ང་གཅིག | lnga bcu nga gcig | 51 | ||
བཅུ་གསུམ | bcu gsum | 13 | དྲུག་ཅུ | drug cu | 60 | དྲུག་ཅུ་རེ་གཅིག | drug cu re gcig | 61 | ||
བཅུ་བཞི | bcu bzhi | 14 | བདུན་ཅུ | bdun cu | 70 | བདུན་ཅུ་དོན་གཅིག | bdun cu don gcig | 71 | ||
བཅོ་ལྔ | bco lnga | 15 | བརྒྱད་ཅུ | brgyad cu | 80 | བརྒྱད་ཅུ་གྱ་གཅིག | brgyad cu gya gcig | 81 | ||
བཅུ་དྲུག | bcu drug | 16 | དགུ་བཅུ | dgu bcu | 90 | དགུ་བཅུ་གོ་གཅིག | dgu bcu go gcig | 91 | ||
བཅུ་བདུན | bcu bdun | 17 | བརྒྱ | bgya | 100 | བརྒྱ་དང་གཅིག | bgya dang gcig | 101 | ||
བཅོ་བརྒྱད | bco brgyad | 18 | བརྒྱ་དང་ལྔ་བཅུ | bgya dang lnga bcu | 150 | |||||
བཅུ་དགུ | bcu dgu | 19 | ཉིས་བརྒྱ | nyis bgya | 200 | |||||
ཉི་ཤུ | nyi shu | 20 | སུམ་བརྒྱ | sum bgya | 300 | |||||
འབུམ | 'bum | (a unit of) 100,000 | ||||||||
ས་ཡ | sa ya | (a unit of) 1,000,000
(1 Million) | ||||||||
བྱེ་བ | bye ba | (a unit of) 10,000,000 | ||||||||
དུང་ཕྱུར | dung phyur | (a unit of) 100,000,000[16] | ||||||||
ཐེར་འབུམ | ther 'bum | (a unit of) 1,000,000,000
(1 Billion) |
Ordinal numbers are formed by adding a suffix to the cardinal number, པ (-pa), with the exception of the ordinal number "first", which has its own lexeme, དང་པོ (dang po).[15]
Writing system
Tibetan is written with an
Tibetan orthographic syllable structure is (C1C2)C3(C4)V(C5C6)[19] Not all combinations are licit.
position | C1 | C2 | C3 | C4 | V | C5 | C6 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
name | Prefix | Superfix | Root | Subjoined | Vowel | Suffix | Suffix 2 |
licit letters | ག ད བ མ འ | ར ལ ས | any consonant | ཡ ར ཝ ལ | any vowel | ག མ ང ད ལ ས ན བ ར འ | ས |
Phonology
The following summarizes the sound system of the dialect of Tibetan spoken in Lhasa, the most influential variety of the spoken language.
The structure of a Lhasa Tibetan syllable is relatively simple;[20] no consonant cluster is allowed[21] and codas are only allowed with a single consonant.[22] Vowels can be either short or long, and long vowels may further be nasalized.[23] Vowel harmony is observed in two syllable words as well as verbs with a finite ending.[24][25]
Also, tones are contrastive in this language, where at least two tonemes are distinguished.[26] Although the four tone analysis is favored by linguists in China,[27] DeLancey (2003) suggests that the falling tone and the final [k] or [ʔ] are in contrastive distribution, describing Lhasa Tibetan syllables as either high or low.[23]
Consonants
Bilabial | Alveolar | Retroflex | (Alveolo-) Palatal |
Velar | Glottal | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n
|
ɲ | ŋ | ||||||
Stop
|
pʰ | p | tʰ | t
|
ʈʰ ~ ʈʂʰ ʈ ~ ʈʂ |
cʰ | c | kʰ | k | ʔ |
Affricate
|
tsʰ | ts | tɕʰ | tɕ | ||||||
Fricative
|
s | ʂ | ɕ | h | ||||||
Approximant
|
w | ɹ̥ |
ɹ
|
j | ||||||
Lateral | l̥ |
l
|
- In the low tone, the unaspirated /p, t, ts, ʈ ~ ʈʂ, tɕ, c, k/ are voiced [b, d, dz, ɖ ~ ɖʐ, dʑ, ɟ, ɡ], whereas the aspirated stops and affricates /pʰ, tʰ, tsʰ, ʈʰ ~ ʈʂʰ, tɕ, cʰ, kʰ/ lose some of their aspiration. Thus, in this context, the main distinction between /p, t, ts, ʈ ~ ʈʂ, tɕ, c, k/ and /pʰ, tʰ, tsʰ, ʈʰ ~ ʈʂʰ, tɕʰ, cʰ, kʰ/ is voicing. The dialect of the upper social strata in Lhasa does not use voiced stops and affricates in the low tone.
- An alveolar approximant[ɹ]; therefore, both are treated as one phoneme.
- The consonants /m/, /ŋ/, /p/, /r/, /l/, and /k/ may appear in syllable-final positions. The Classical Tibetan final /n/ is still present, but its modern pronunciation is normally realized as a nasalisation of the preceding vowel, rather than as a discrete consonant (see above). However, /k/ is not pronounced in the final position of a word except in very formal speech. Also, syllable-final /r/ and /l/ are often not clearly pronounced but realized as a lengthening of the preceding vowel. The phonemic glottal stop /ʔ/ appears only at the end of words in the place of /s/, /t/, or /k/, which were pronounced in Classical Tibetan but have since been elided. For instance, the word for Tibet itself was Bod in Classical Tibetan but is now pronounced [pʰø̀ʔ] in the Lhasa dialect.
Vowels
The vowels of Lhasa Tibetan have been characterized and described in several different ways, and it continues to be a topic of ongoing research.[28]
Tournadre and Sangda Dorje describe eight vowels in the standard language:[29]
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i y | u | |
Close-mid | e ø | o | |
Open-mid | ɛ | ||
Open | a |
Three additional vowels are sometimes described as significantly distinct: [ʌ] or [ə], which is normally an allophone of /a/; [ɔ], which is normally an allophone of /o/; and [ɛ̈] (an unrounded, centralised, mid front vowel), which is normally an allophone of /e/. These sounds normally occur in closed syllables; because Tibetan does not allow
Sources vary on whether the [ɛ̈] phone (resulting from /e/ in a closed syllable) and the [ɛ] phone (resulting from /a/ through the i-mutation) are distinct or basically identical.
Phonemic vowel length exists in Lhasa Tibetan but in a restricted set of circumstances. Assimilation of Classical Tibetan's suffixes, normally 'i (འི་), at the end of a word produces a long vowel in Lhasa Tibetan; the feature is sometimes omitted in phonetic transcriptions. In normal spoken pronunciation, a lengthening of the vowel is also frequently substituted for the sounds [r] and [l] when they occur at the end of a syllable.
The vowels /i/, /y/, /e/, /ø/, and /ɛ/ each have nasalized forms: /ĩ/, /ỹ/, /ẽ/, /ø̃/, and /ɛ̃/, respectively.[30] These historically result from /in/, /un/, /en/, /on/, /an/, and are reflected in the written language. The vowel quality of /un/, /on/ and /an/ has shifted, since historical /n/, along with all other coronal final consonants, caused a form of umlaut in the Ü/Dbus branch of Central Tibetan.[31] In some unusual cases, the vowels /a/, /u/, and /o/ may also be nasalised.
Tones
The Lhasa dialect is usually described as having two tones: high and low. However, in monosyllabic words, each tone can occur with two distinct contours. The high tone can be pronounced with either a flat or a falling contour, and the low tone can be pronounced with either a flat or rising-falling contour, the latter being a tone that rises to a medium level before falling again. It is normally safe to distinguish only between the two tones because there are very few minimal pairs that differ only because of contour. The difference occurs only in certain words ending in the sounds [m] or [ŋ]; for instance, the word kham (Tibetan: ཁམ་, "piece") is pronounced [kʰám] with a high flat tone, whereas the word Khams (Tibetan: ཁམས་, "the Kham region") is pronounced [kʰâm] with a high falling tone.
In polysyllabic words, tone is not important except in the first syllable. This means that from the point of view of phonological
Verbal system
The Lhasa Tibetan verbal system distinguishes four tenses and three evidential moods.[32]
Future | Present | Past | Perfect | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Personal | V་གི་ཡིན་ V-gi-yin |
V་གི་ཡོད་ V-gi-yod |
V་པ་ཡིན / V་བྱུང་ V-pa-yin / byung |
V་ཡོད་ V-yod |
Factual | V་གི་རེད་ V-gi-red |
V་གི་ཡོད་པ་རེད་ V-gi-yod-pa-red |
V་པ་རེད་ V-pa-red |
V་ཡོད་པ་རེད་ V-yod-pa-red |
Testimonial | ------- | V་གི་འདུག་ V-gi-'dug |
V་སོང་ V-song |
V་བཞག་ V-bzhag |
The three moods may all occur with all three grammatical persons, though early descriptions associated the personal modal category with European first-person agreement.[33]
Scholarship
In the 18th and 19th centuries several Western linguists arrived in Tibet:
- The Capuchin friars who settled in Lhasa for a quarter of century from 1719:
- Francesco della Penna, well known from his accurate description of Tibet,[34]
- Cassian di Macerata sent home materials which were used by the Augustine friar Aug. Antonio Georgi of Rimini (1711–1797) in his Alphabetum Tibetanum (Rome, 1762, 4t0), a ponderous and confused compilation, which may be still referred to, but with great caution.[34]
- The Hungarian Sándor Kőrösi Csoma (1784–1842), who published the first Tibetan–European language dictionary (Classical Tibetan and English in this case) and grammar, Essay Towards a Dictionary, Tibetan and English.
- Heinrich August Jäschke of the Moravian mission which was established in Ladakh in 1857,[8] Tibetan Grammar and A Tibetan–English Dictionary.
- At St Petersburg, Isaac Jacob Schmidt published his Grammatik der tibetischen Sprache in 1839 and his Tibetisch-deutsches Wörterbuch in 1841. His access to Mongolian sources had enabled him to enrich the results of his labours with a certain amount of information unknown to his predecessors. His Tibetische Studien (1851–1868) is a valuable collection of documents and observations.[35]
- In France, P. E. Foucaux published in 1847 a translation from the Rgya tcher rol-pa, the Tibetan version of the Lalita Vistara, and in 1858 a Grammaire thibétaine.[35]
- Ant. Schiefner of St Petersburg in 1849 his series of translations and researches.[35]
- Theos Casimir Bernard, a PhD scholar of religion from Columbia University, explorer and practitioner of Yoga and Tibetan Buddhism, published, after his 1936/37 trip to India and Tibet, A Simplified Grammar of the Literary Tibetan Language, 1946. See the 'Books' section.
Indian indologist and linguist Rahul Sankrityayan wrote a Tibetan grammar in Hindi. Some of his other works on Tibetan were:
- Tibbati Bal-Siksha, 1933
- Pathavali (Vols. 1, 2, 3), 1933
- Tibbati Vyakaran, 1933
- Tibbat May Budh Dharm, 1948
- Japanese linguist Kitamura Hajime published a grammar and dictionary of Lhasa Tibetan
Contemporary usage
In much of Tibet,
In February 2008,
Some scholars also question such claims because most Tibetans continue to reside in rural areas where Chinese is rarely spoken, as opposed to Lhasa and other Tibetan cities where Chinese can often be heard. In the Texas Journal of International Law, Barry Sautman stated that "none of the many recent studies of endangered languages deems Tibetan to be imperiled, and language maintenance among Tibetans contrasts with language loss even in the remote areas of Western states renowned for liberal policies... claims that primary schools in Tibet teach Mandarin are in error. Tibetan was the main language of instruction in 98% of TAR primary schools in 1996; today, Mandarin is introduced in early grades only in urban schools.... Because less than four out of ten TAR Tibetans reach secondary school, primary school matters most for their cultural formation."[41]
Machine translation software and applications
An incomplete list of machine translation software or applications that can translate Tibetan language from/to a variety of other languages.
- 藏译通 – Zangyitong, a mobile app for translating between Tibetan and Chinese.[42]
- 青海弥陀翻译 – A Beta-version WeChat Mini Program that translate between Tibetan language to/from Chinese. (invitation from WeChat users only)
- 腾讯民汉翻译 – A WeChat Mini Program that translate between Tibetan language to/from Chinese.[43]
- THL Tibetan to English Translation Tool – A webpage that annotates Tibetan text various English meanings and translations, with 10+ dictionaries integrated.[44] A downloadable version is also available.[45]
- 中国社科院 藏汉(口语)机器翻译 – A demonstrative website (slow in response) translating Tibetan to Chinese, developed by Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. It works well on Tibetan text from official Chinese News websites.[46]
- Panlex – A multilingual translation website with a few Tibetan words.[47]
- Microsoft Translator – Has a Option to Translate Tibetan.
Example Text
From Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Tibetan, written in the Tibetan script:[48]
འགྲོ་
'gro
བ་
ba
མིའི་
mi'i
རིགས་
rigs
རྒྱུད་
rgyud
ཡོངས་
yongs
ལ་
la
སྐྱེས་
skyes
ཙམ་
tsam
ཉིད་
nyid
ནས་
nas
ཆེ་
che
མཐོངས་
mthongs
དང༌།
dang
ཐོབ་
thob
ཐངགི་
thangagi
རང་
rang
དབང་
dbang
འདྲ་
'dra
མཉམ་
mnyam
དུ་
du
ཡོད་
yod
ལ།
la
ཁོང་
khong
ཚོར་
tshor
རང་
rang
བྱུང་
byung
གི་
gi
བློ་
blo
རྩལ་
rtsal
དང་
dang
བསམ་
bsam
ཚུལ་
tshul
བཟང་
bzang
པོ་
po
འདོན་
'don
པའི་
pa'i
འོས་
'os
བབས་
babs
ཀྱང་
kyang
ཡོད།
yod
དེ་
de
བཞིན་
bzhin
ཕན་
phan
ཚུན་
tshun
གཅིག་
gcig
གིས་
gis
གཅིག་
gcig
ལ་
la
བུ་
bu
སྤུན་
spun
གྱི་
gyi
འདུ་
'du
ཤེས་
shes
འཛིན་
'dzin
པའི་
pa'i
བྱ་
bya
སྤྱོད་
spyod
ཀྱང་
kyang
ལག་
lag
ལེན་
len
བསྟར་
bstar
དགོས་
dgos
པ་
pa
ཡིན༎
yin
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
See also
Notes
- ^
- The name "Lhasa Tibetan" is the preferred name, as in Chapter 19: Lhasa Tibetan, The Sino-Tibetan Languages, 2nd edition (2017), edited by Graham Thurgood and Randy J. LaPolla.
- It is sometimes referred to by learners as "Standard Tibetan" (Tibetan: བོད་སྐད་, Wylie: Bod skad, THL: Böké, ZYPY: Pögä, IPA: [pʰø̀k˭ɛʔ]; also Tibetan: བོད་ཡིག་, Wylie: Bod yig, THL: Böyik, ZYPY: Pöyig[citation needed])
References
- ^ Lhasa Tibetan at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ISBN 978-0-367-57045-3.
- ^ "Fifty Years of Democratic Reform in Tibet". Official Chinese government site. 2009-03-02. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
- ^ a b Gelek, Konchok (2017). "Variation, contact, and change in language: Varieties in Yul shul (northern Khams)". International Journal of the Sociology of Language (245): 91-92.
- ^ Makley, Charlene; Dede, Keith; Hua, Kan; Wang, Qingshan (1999). "The Amdo Dialect of Labrang" (PDF). Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 22 (1): 101. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-05.
- ^ Reynolds, Jermay J. (2012). Language variation and change in an Amdo Tibetan village: Gender, education and resistance (PDF) (PhD thesis). Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Georgetown University. p. 19-21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-12.
- ISBN 978-3-8467-6346-9. Archivedfrom the original on 16 June 2022. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
- ^ a b Waddell & de_Lacouperie 1911, p. 919.
- ^ Tournadre, Nicolas. "Features: Show: Verbs and Verb Phrases". subjects.kmaps.virginia.edu. Archived from the original on 5 May 2023. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
- ^ a b c Tournardre, Nicolas (Spring 1991). "The rhetorical use of the Tibetan ergative" (PDF). Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 14 (1): 93–107. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2023. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
- ^ DeLancey, Scott (1985). "Lhasa Tibetan Evidentials and the Semantics of Causation". Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society. Archived from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
- ISBN 978-3-11-047374-2. Archivedfrom the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
- ^ Tournadre, Nicolas. "Features: Show: Table: The Main Auxiliaries". subjects.kmaps.virginia.edu. Archived from the original on 5 May 2023. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
- ^ a b Waddell & de_Lacouperie 1911, p. 920.
- ^ a b c d e Tournadre & Dorje 2003, pp. 131–134.
- ^ lywa (2015-04-02). "Tibetan Numbers". www.lamayeshe.com. Archived from the original on 2020-07-03. Retrieved 2020-06-30.
- ISBN 978-1-000-07934-0. Retrieved 2024-03-11.
- ^ Germano, David; Tournadre, Nicolas (2003). "THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription of Standard Tibetan". The Tibetan and Himalayan library. Archived from the original on December 24, 2022. Retrieved Dec 24, 2022.
- ^ Droma, Nyima; Bartee, Ellen (2000). A beginning textbook of Lhasa Tibetan. National Press for Tibetan Studies. pp. 9–17.
- ^ Lim 2018, p. 12.
- ^ Denwood 1999, p. 75.
- ^ Denwood 1999, p. 71.
- ^ a b DeLancey 2003, p. 272.
- ^ Chang & Chang 1968.
- ^ DeLancey 2003, p. 271.
- ^ Lim 2018, p. 28.
- ^ Lim 2018, p. 34.
- ISSN 0731-3500.
- ^ Tournadre & Dorje 2003, p. 35.
- ^ Tournadre & Dorje 2003, p. 55.
- ^ Tournadre & Dorje 2003, p. 56.
- ^ Hill, Nathan W. (2013). "ḥdug as a testimonial marker in Classical and Old Tibetan". Himalayan Linguistics. 12 (1): 2. Archived from the original on 2016-02-16. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
- ^ Hill, Nathan W. (2013). "Contextual semantics of 'Lhasa' Tibetan evidentials". SKASE Journal of Theoretical Linguistics. 10 (3): 47–54. Archived from the original on 2016-02-16. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
- ^ a b Waddell & de_Lacouperie 1911, p. 920, note 1.
- ^ a b c Waddell & de_Lacouperie 1911, p. 920, note 2.
- ^ Lobe Socktsang; Richard Finney. (9 April 2020). "Classroom Instruction Switch From Tibetan to Chinese in Ngaba Sparks Worry, Anger". Translated by Dorjee Damdul. Archived from the original on 12 April 2020. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
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- ^ "Report reveals determined Chinese assault on Tibetan language" (Press release). Free Tibet. 21 February 2008. Archived from the original on 25 July 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
- ^ Sperling, Elliot (2000). "Exile and Dissent: The Historical and Cultural Context". In Harris, Melissa; Jones, Sydney (eds.). Tibet Since 1950: Silence, Prison, or Exile. pp. 31–36.
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Further reading
- Bernard, Theos C. (1946). A Simplified Grammar of the Literary Tibetan Language. Santa Barbara, CA: Tibetan Text Society.
- Chang, Kun; Chang, Betty Shefts (1968). "Vowel harmony in spoken Lhasa Tibetan". Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology (BIHP). 40: 53–124.
- ISBN 978-81-86142-82-0.
- Das, Sarat Chandra (2004). Tibetan-English dictionary. Delhi: ISBN 81-208-1713-3.
- Das, Sarat Chandra (2004). Tibetan-English dictionary. Delhi:
- DeLancey, Scott (2003). "Lhasa Tibetan". The Sino-Tibetan Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 270–288.
- Denwood, Philip (1999). Tibetan. London Oriental and African Language Library. Vol. 3. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISSN 1382-3485.
- Francis, Norbert (March 2018). "Review of 'Becoming Bilingual in School and Home in Tibetan Areas of China: Stories of Struggle'". China Review International. 25 (1): 48–53. . lingbuzz/005092.
- Hahn, Michael (July 2008). "Foundational Questions of Tibetan Morphology". The Tibet Journal. 33 (2): 3–19.
- Hodge, Stephen (2003). An Introduction to Classical Tibetan. Orchid Press. ISBN 974-524-039-7.
- ISBN 1-84382-077-3. " ... contains a facsimile of the original publication in manuscript, the first printed version of 1883, and the later Addenda published with the Third Edition."—P. [4] of cover.
- Jäschke, Heinrich August (1866). Romanized Tibetan and English dictionary. Kye-Lang. Retrieved 2011-06-30.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Jäschke, Heinrich August (1881). A Tibetan–English dictionary, with special reference to the prevailing dialects: To which is added an English-Tibetan vocabulary. London: Unger Brothers (T. Grimm).
- Jäschke, Heinrich August (1883). Heinrich Wenzel (ed.). Tibetan grammar. Trübner's collection of simplified grammars. Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). London: Trübner & co.
- Kopp, Teresa Kunkel (1998). Verbalizers in Lhasa Tibetan (PhD thesis). Arlington: University of Texas.
- Lim, Keh Sheng (2018). Tonal and Intonational Phonology of Lhasa Tibetan (Ph.D. thesis). University of Ottawa.
- Naga, Sangye Tandar (2010). Vitali, Roberto (ed.). "Some Reflections on the Mysterious Nature of Tibetan Language". The Tibet Journal. 34–35 (3-2: The Earth Ox Papers): 561–566. JSTOR 43302083.
- Sandberg, Graham (1894). Hand-book of colloquial Tibetan: A practical guide to the language of Central Tibet. Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co.
- ISBN 1-55939-189-8.
- Waddell, Lawrence Austine; de Lacouperie, Albert Terrien (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 919–921.