Stanisław August Poniatowski
Stanisław II August | |
---|---|
Poniatowski | |
Father | Stanisław Poniatowski |
Mother | Konstancja Czartoryska |
Religion | Roman Catholicism |
Signature |
Stanisław II August
Born into wealthy Polish
The defining crisis of his early reign was the
A controversial figure in
Youth
Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski was born on 17 January 1732 in
He spent the first few years of his childhood in
Political career
The following year Poniatowski was apprenticed to the office of
Poniatowski owed his rise and influence to his family connections with the powerful
In Saint Petersburg, Williams introduced Poniatowski to the 26-year-old
Poniatowski had to leave St. Petersburg in July 1756 due to court intrigue.[12][14] Through the combined influence of Catherine, of Russian empress Elizabeth and of chancellor Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Poniatowski was able to rejoin the Russian court now as ambassador of Saxony the following January.[12][14] Still in St Petersburg, he appears to have been a source of intrigue between various European governments, some supporting his appointment, others demanding his withdrawal. He eventually left the Russian capital on 14 August 1758.[12]
Poniatowski attended the Sejms of 1758, 1760, and 1762.[17] He continued his involvement with the Familia, and supported a pro-Russian and anti-Prussian stance in Polish politics. His father died in 1762, leaving him a modest inheritance.[17] In 1762, when Catherine ascended the Russian throne, she sent him several letters professing her support for his own ascension to the Polish throne, but asking him to stay away from St. Petersburg.[17] Nevertheless, Poniatowski hoped that Catherine would consider his offer of marriage, an idea seen as plausible by some international observers. He participated in the failed plot by the Familia to stage a coup d'état against King Augustus III.[17] In August 1763, however, Catherine advised him and the Familia that she would not support a coup as long as King Augustus was alive.[17]
Kingship
Years of hope
Upon the death of Poland's King
"Stanisław August", as he now styled himself combining the names of his two immediate royal predecessors, began his rule with only mixed support within the nation. It was mainly the small nobility who favoured his election.
The Bar Confederation and First Partition of Poland
Matters came to a head in 1766. During the Sejm in October of that year, Poniatowski attempted to push through a radical reform, restricting the disastrous
Although it had abandoned the cause of Poniatowski's reforms, the Familia did not receive the support it expected from the Russians who continued to press for the conservatives' rights. Meanwhile, other factions now rallied under the banner of the
Although Poniatowski protested against the First Partition of the Commonwealth (1772), he was powerless to do anything about it.[33] He considered abdication, but decided against it.[31]
During the Partition Sejm of 1773–1775, in which Russia was represented by ambassador Otto von Stackelberg, with no allied assistance forthcoming from abroad and with the armies of the partitioning powers occupying Warsaw to compel the Sejm by force of arms, no alternative was available save submission to their will.[34][35][36] Eventually Poniatowski and the Sejm acceded to the "partition treaty". At the same time, several other reforms were passed.[36] The Cardinal Laws were confirmed and guaranteed by the partitioning powers.[35] Royal prerogative was restricted, so that the King lost the power to confer titular roles, and military promotions, to appoint ministers and senators. Starostwo territories, and Crown lands would be awarded by auction.[35][37][38] The Sejm also created two notable institutions: the Permanent Council, a government body in continuous operation, and the Commission of National Education.[39] The partitioning powers intended the council to be easier to control than the unruly Sejms, and indeed it remained under the influence of the Russian Empire. Nevertheless, it was a significant improvement on the earlier Commonwealth governance.[35][39] The new legislation was guaranteed by the Russian Empire, giving it licence to interfere in Commonwealth politics when legislation it favoured was threatened.[35]
The aftermath of the
The Great Sejm and the Constitution of 3 May 1791
In the 1780s, Catherine appeared to favour Poniatowski marginally over the opposition, but she did not support any of his plans for significant reform.[40] Despite repeated attempts, Poniatowski failed to confederate the sejms, which would have made them immune to the liberum veto.[24] Thus, although he had a majority in the Sejms, Poniatowski was unable to pass even the smallest reform. The Zamoyski Code was rejected by the Sejm of 1780, and opposition attacks on the King dominated the Sejms of 1782 and 1786.[24]
Reforms became possible again in the late 1780s. In the context of the wars being waged against the Ottoman Empire by both the
The Polish-Russian alliance was not implemented, as in the end the only acceptable compromise proved unattractive to both sides.
In foreign policy, spurned by Russia, Poland turned to another potential ally, the
War in Defence of the Constitution and fall of the Commonwealth
Shortly thereafter, conservative Polish nobility formed the
Despite Polish requests, Prussia refused to honour its alliance obligations.
Final years
Poniatowski's plans had been ruined by the Kościuszko Uprising.[70] The King had not encouraged it, but once it began he supported it, seeing no other honourable option.[70] Its defeat marked the end of the Commonwealth. Poniatowski tried to govern the country in the brief period after the fall of the Uprising, but on 2 December 1794, Catherine demanded he leave Warsaw, a request to which he acceded on 7 January 1795, leaving the capital under Russian military escort and settling briefly in Grodno.[71] On 24 October 1795, the Act of the final, Third Partition of Poland was signed. One month and one day later, on 25 November, Poniatowski signed his abdication.[71][72][73] Reportedly, his sister, Ludwika Maria Zamoyska and her daughter also his favourite niece, Urszula Zamoyska, who had been threatened with confiscation of their property, had contributed to persuading him to sign the abdication: they feared that his refusal would lead to a Russian confiscation of their properties and their ruin.[74]
Catherine died on 17 November 1796, succeeded by her son, Paul I of Russia. On 15 February 1797, Poniatowski left for Saint Petersburg.[72] He had hoped to be allowed to travel abroad, but was unable to secure permission to do so.[72] A virtual prisoner in St. Petersburg's Marble Palace,[75] he subsisted on a pension granted to him by Catherine.[72] Despite financial troubles, he still supported some of his former allies, and continued to try to represent the Polish cause at the Russian court.[72] He also worked on his memoirs.[72]
Poniatowski died of a stroke on 12 February 1798.
Legacy
Patron of culture
Stanisław August Poniatowski has been called the
He was also patron to numerous painters.
Poniatowski accomplished much in the realm of education and literature.
He supported the development of the sciences, particularly
For his contributions to the arts and sciences, Poniatowski was awarded in 1766 a royal
He also supported the development of industry and manufacturing, areas in which the Commonwealth lagged behind most of Western Europe.[79][89] Among the endeavours in which he invested were the manufacture of cannons and firearms and the mining industry.[79]
Poniatowski himself left several literary works: his memoirs, some political brochures and recorded speeches from the Sejm.[76] He was considered a great orator and a skilled conversationalist.[76]
Conflicting assessments
King Stanisław Augustus remains a controversial figure.
When elected to the throne, he was seen by many as simply an "instrument for displacing the somnolent Saxons from the throne of Poland", yet as the British historian, Norman Davies notes, "he turned out to be an ardent patriot, and a convinced reformer."[94] Still, according to many, his reforms did not go far enough, leading to accusations that he was being overly cautious, even indecisive, a fault to which he himself admitted.[76][95] His decision to rely on Russia has been often criticized.[95] Poniatowski saw Russia as a "lesser evil" – willing to support the notional "independence" of a weak Poland within the Russian sphere of influence. However, in the event Russia imposed the Partitions of Poland rather than choose to support internal reform.[95][96] He was accused by others of weakness and subservience, even of treason, especially in the years following the Second Partition.[69][70] During the Kościuszko Uprising, there were rumours that Polish Jacobins had been planning a coup d'état and Poniatowski's assassination.[71] Another line of criticism alleged poor financial management on his part.[86] Poniatowski actually had little personal wealth. Most of his income came from Crown Estates and monopolies.[86] His lavish patronage of the arts and sciences was a major drain on the royal treasury. He also supported numerous public initiatives, and attempted to use the royal treasury to cover the state's expenses when tax revenues were insufficient.[86] The Sejm promised several times to compensate his treasury to little practical effect.[86] Nonetheless contemporary critics frequently accused him of being a spendthrift.[76]
Andrzej Zahorski dedicated a book to a discussion of Poniatowski, The Dispute over Stanisław August (Spór o Stanisława Augusta, Warsaw, 1988).[69] He notes that the discourse concerning Poniatowski is significantly coloured by the fact that he was the last King of Poland – the King who failed to save the country.[92] This failure, and his prominent position, rendered him a convenient scapegoat for many.[97] Zahorski argues that Poniatowski made the error of joining the Targowica Confederation. Although he wanted to preserve the integrity of the Polish state, it was far too late for that – he succeeded instead in cementing the damage to his own reputation for succeeding centuries.[96]
Remembrance
Poniatowski has been the subject of numerous biographies and many works of art.
On screen he has been played by
Poniatowski is depicted in numerous portraits, medals and coins.
Family
Poniatowski never married. In his youth, he had loved his cousin
Upon his accession to the throne, he had hopes of marrying
A few historians believe that he later contracted a secret marriage with Elżbieta Szydłowska. However, according to Wirydianna Fiszerowa, a contemporary who knew them both, this rumour only spread after the death of Poniatowski, was generally disbelieved, and moreover, was circulated by Elżbieta herself, so the marriage is considered by most to be unlikely.[107] He had several notable lovers, including Elżbieta Branicka, who acted as his political adviser and financier,[108] and had children with two of them. With Magdalena Agnieszka Sapieżyna (1739–1780), he became the father of Konstancja Żwanowa (1768–1810) and Michał Cichocki (1770–1828).[69] With Elżbieta Szydłowska (1748–1810), he became the father of Stanisław Konopnicy-Grabowski (1780–1845), Michał Grabowski (1773–1812), Kazimierz Grabowski (1770-?),[a] Konstancja Grabowska[a] and Izabela Grabowska (1776–1858).[69]
Issue
Name | Birth | Death | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
By Catherine the Great | |||
Anna Petrovna | 9 December 1757 | 8 March 1758 | Her legal father was Catherine's husband, Peter III of Russia; but most historians assume that Anna Petrovna's biological father was Poniatowski[109] |
By Magdalena Agnieszka Sapieżyna | |||
Konstancja Żwanowa | 1768 | 1810 | married Karol Żwan; no issue (divorced) |
Michał Cichocki | September 1770 | 5 May 1828 | |
By Elżbieta Szydłowska | |||
Konstancja Grabowska | ? | ? | married Wincenty Dernałowicz. Not all sources agree she was Poniatowski's child.[a] |
Michał Grabowski | 1773 | 17 August 1812 | Brigadier general of the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw; died in Battle of Smolensk (1812); no issue |
Izabela Grabowska | 26 March 1776 | 21 May 1858 | married Walenty Sobolewski; had three daughters |
Stanisław Grabowski | 29 October 1780 | 3 October 1845 | married twice |
Kazimierz Grabowski | ? | ? | Not all sources agree he was Poniatowski's child.[a] |
Titles, honours and arms
The English translation of the Polish text of the 1791 Constitution gives his title as Stanisław August, by the grace of God and the will of the people, King of
National
- Poland–Lithuania: Order of the White Eagle (1756)
- Poland–Lithuania: Order of Saint Stanislaus (1765)[111]
- Order of Virtuti Militari (1792)[112]
Foreign
- Prussia: Order of the Black Eagle (5 April 1764)[113]
- Order of Saint Andrew (1764)[111]
See also
- History of Poland (1569–1795)
- Poles in the United Kingdom
- Warsaw Society of Friends of Learning
Notes
- ^ pronounced [staˈɲiswaf druɡiˈauɡust].
- ^ pronounced [staˈɲiswaf anˈtɔɲi pɔɲaˈtɔfskʲi].
a ^ Sources vary as to whether Konstancja Grabowska and Kazimierz Grabowski were Poniatowski's children. They are listed as such by several sources, including Jerzy Michalski's article on Stanisław August Poniatowski in the Polish Biographical Dictionary.[69] However, Marek Jerzy Minakowski's website on descendants of Great Sejm participants lists neither Kazimierz Grabowski nor Konstancja Grabowska as Poniatowski's children; and for Elżbieta Szydłowska, it lists only Kazimierz Grabowski as Jan Jerzy Grabowski's child.[114][115]
References
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Biogram został opublikowany w 1994 r. w XXXV tomie Polskiego Słownika Biograficznego.
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Further reading
- Bain, Robert Nisbet (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). p. 776.
- Butterwick, Richard (14 May 1998). Poland's Last King and English Culture: Stanisław August Poniatowski, 1732–1798. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820701-6. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
- Butterwick, Richard (2001). "The Enlightened Monarchy of Stanisław August Poniatowski, 1764–1795". In Richard, Butterwick (ed.). The Polish-Lithuanian Monarchy in European Context, c.1500–1795. Basingstoke and London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 192–217. ISBN 978-0-333-99380-4.
- Dembiński, Bronisław, ed. (1904). Stanisław August i książe Józef Poniatowski w świetle własnej korespondencyi [Stanislaw and Prince Joseph Poniatowski in the Light of Their Private Correspondence] (in Polish). Nakład Towarzystwa dla Popierania Nauki Polskiej Lviv.
- Kiliński, Jan (1899) [1818]. Drugi pamiętnik, nieznany, o czasach Stanisława Augusta [Recollections of the Times of Stanislaw August] (in Polish). Aleksander Kraushar.
- Kwiatkowski, Marek (1983). Stanisław August, Król-Architekt (Stanisław August, King-Architect) (in Polish). Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. ISBN 978-83-04-00850-2. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
- Lindemann, Mary (2006). Liaisons dangereuses: sex, law, and diplomacy in the age of Frederick the Great. JHU Press. ISBN 08-01883-17-2.
- Łojek, Jerzy (1998). Stanisław August Poniatowski i jego czasy (Stanisław August Poniatowski and His Times) (in Polish). Wydawn. Alfa. ISBN 978-83-7179-023-2. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
- Schulz-Forberg, Hagen (2005). Unravelling Civilisation: European Travel and Travel Writing. Peter Lang. ISBN 90-52012-35-0.
- Zamoyski, Adam (1992). The last king of Poland. J. Cape. ISBN 0-224-03548-7.
Bibliography
- Marek Żukow-Karczewski, Stanisław August w Petersburgu (Stanisław August in Saint Petersburg), "Życie Literackie", No. 43, 1987, pp. 1, 6. (in Polish)
External links
- Media related to Stanislaus II August of Poland at Wikimedia Commons
- Biography at www.lazienki-krolewskie.pl (Official page of the Royal ŁazienkiMuseum in Warsaw)
- Poniatowski, in: The Historical Geography of the Ciołek clan AD 950–1950.
- Stanisław August w Gdańsku
- Poniatowski's memoirs
- Works by Stanisław August Poniatowski in digital library Polona
public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Poniatowski". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 61.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the