Steam power during the Industrial Revolution

Improvements to the

Thomas Savery's steam pump

The industrial use of steam power started with Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London the first engine, which he called the "Miner's Friend" since he intended it to pump water from mines. Early versions used a soldered copper boiler which burst easily at low steam pressures. Later versions with iron boiler were capable of raising water about 46 meters (150 feet). The Savery engine had no moving parts other than hand-operated valves. The steam once admitted into the cylinder was first condensed by an external cold water spray, thus creating a partial vacuum which drew water up through a pipe from a lower level; then valves were opened and closed and a fresh charge of steam applied directly on to the surface of the water now in the cylinder, forcing it up an outlet pipe discharging at higher level. The engine was used as a low-lift water pump in a few mines and numerous water works, but it was not a success since it was limited in pumping height and prone to boiler explosions.^[1]

Thomas Newcomen's steam engine

The first practical mechanical steam engine was introduced by

A number of Newcomen engines were successfully put to use in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a lot of capital to build, and produced about 5 hp. They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the nineteenth century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread to France, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s, the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.

James Watt's steam engines

A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by James Watt. With the close collaboration of Matthew Boulton, by 1778 he had succeeded in perfecting his steam engine which incorporated a series of radical improvements; notably, the use of a steam jacket around the cylinder to keep it at the temperature of the steam and, most importantly, a steam condenser chamber separate from the piston chamber. These improvements increased engine efficiency by a factor of about five, saving 75% on coal costs.

The Newcomen engine could not, at the time, be easily adapted to drive a rotating wheel, although Wasborough and Pickard did succeed in doing so in about 1780. However, by 1783 the more economical Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type with a

In the early 19th century, after the expiration of the Boulton & Watt patent in 1800, the steam engine underwent great increases in power due to the use of higher-pressure steam, which Watt had always avoided because of the danger of exploding boilers, which were in a very primitive state of development.[4]^[5]

Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the

The Cornish engine was developed in the 1810s for pumping mines in Cornwall. It was the result of using the exhaust of a high-pressure engine to power a condensing engine. The Cornish engine was notable for its relatively high efficiency.

The Corliss Engine

The last major improvement to the steam engine was the

Corliss kept a detailed record of the production, collective horsepower, and sales of his engines up until the patent expired.^[13] He did this for a number of reasons, including tracking those who infringed on the patent rights, maintenance and upgrade details, and especially as data used to extend the patent. With this data, a more clear understanding of the engine's influence is provided. By 1869, nearly 1200 engines had been sold, totaling 118,500 horsepower. Another estimated 60,000 horsepower was being utilized by engines that were created by manufacturers infringing on Corliss's patent, bringing the total horsepower to roughly 180,000.^[8] This relatively small number of engines produced 15% of the United States’ total 1.2 million horsepower.^[14] The mean horsepower for all Corliss engines in 1870 was 100, while the mean for all steam engines (including Corliss engines) was 30. Some very large engines even allowed for applications as large as 1,400 horsepower. Many were convinced of the Corliss engine's benefits, but adoption was slow due to patent protection. When Corliss was denied a patent extension in 1870, it became a prevalent model for stationary engines in the industrial sector.^[8] By the end of the 19th century, the engine was already having a major influence on the manufacturing sector, where it made up only 10% of the sector's engines, but produced 46% of the horsepower.^[14] The engine also became a model of efficiency outside of the textile industry, as it was used for pumping the waterways of Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1878, and played an essential role in the expansion of the railroad by allowing for very large-scale operations in rolling mills.^[6][8] Many steam engines of the 19th century have been replaced, destroyed, or repurposed, but the longevity of the Corliss engine is apparent today in select distilleries, where they are still used as a power source.^[15]

Major Applications

Blast furnace power

In the mid-1750s, the steam engine was applied to the water power-constrained iron, copper and lead industries for powering blast bellows. These industries were located near the mines, some of which were using steam engines for mine pumping. Steam engines were too powerful for leather bellows, so cast iron blowing cylinders were developed in 1768. Steam-powered blast furnaces achieved higher temperatures, allowing the use of more lime in iron blast furnace feed. (Lime-rich slag was not free-flowing at the previously used temperatures.) With a sufficient lime ratio, sulfur from coal or coke fuel reacts with the slag so that the sulfur does not contaminate the iron. Coal and coke were cheaper and more abundant fuel. As a result, iron production rose significantly during the last decades of the 18th century.^[16]

Moving from water to steam power

This period of economic growth, which was ushered in by the introduction and adoption of the steamboat, was one of the greatest ever experienced in the United States. Robert Fulton, Robert Livingston and Henry Shreve were all big contributors to the introduction of the steamboat^[22] to the American public. Around 1815, steamboats began to replace barges and flatboats in the transport of goods around the United States. Prior to the steamboat, rivers were generally only used in transporting goods from east to west, and from north to south as fighting the current was very difficult and often impossible.^[23] Non-powered boats and rafts were assembled up-stream, would carry their cargo down stream, and would often be disassembled at the end of their journey; with their remains being used to construct homes and commercial buildings. Following the advent of the steamboat, the United States saw an incredible growth in the transportation of goods and people, which was key in westward expansion. Prior to the steamboat, it could take between three and four months to make the passage from New Orleans to Louisville, averaging twenty miles a day.^[23] With the steamboat this time was reduced drastically with trips ranging from twenty-five to thirty-five days. This was especially beneficial to farmers as their crops could now be transported elsewhere to be sold.

The steamboat also allowed for increased specialization. Sugar and cotton were shipped up north while goods like poultry, grain, and pork were shipped south. Unfortunately, the steamboat also aided in the internal slave trade.^[24]

With the steamboat came the need for an improved river system. The natural river system had features that either wasn't compatible with steamboat travel or was only available during certain months when rivers were higher. Some obstacles included rapids, sand bars, shallow waters and waterfalls. To overcome these natural obstacles, a network of canals, locks and dams were constructed. This increased demand for labor spurred tremendous job growth along the rivers.^[25]

The economic benefits of the steamboat extended far beyond the construction of the ships themselves, and the goods they transported. These ships led directly to growth in the coal and insurance industries, along with creating demand for repair facilities along the rivers.^[26] Additionally the demand for goods in general increased as the steamboat made transport to new destinations both wide reaching and efficient.

The steamboat and water transport

After the steamboat was invented and achieved a number of successful trials, it was quickly adopted and led to an even quicker change in the way of

In 1814, the city of New Orleans recorded 21 steamboat arrivals, but over the course of the following 20 years that number exploded to more than 1200. The steamboat's role as a major transportation source was secured.^[27] The transport sector saw enormous growth following the steam engine's application, leading to major innovations in

In 1816, the US had only 100 miles of

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References