Steel

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Steel is an

oxidation, typically need an additional 11% chromium. Because of its high tensile strength
and low cost, steel is used in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, bicycles, machines, electrical appliances, furniture, and weapons.

Iron is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms (allotropic forms):

crystal structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite ductile, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations
.

The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), impedes the movement of the dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the

of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility.

Steel was produced in

The German states saw major steel prowess over Europe in the 19th century,[1] and the American steel production industry was manufactured in cities such as Pittsburgh and Cleveland
until the late 20th century.

Further refinements in the process, such as

Definitions and related materials

The steel cable of a colliery winding tower

The noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stahliją or stakhlijan 'made of steel', which is related to stahlaz or stahliją 'standing firm'.[4]

The carbon content of steel is between 0.02% and 2.14% by weight for plain carbon steel (iron-carbon alloys). Too little carbon content leaves (pure) iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make a brittle alloy commonly called pig iron. Alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include: manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium.[5] Additional elements, most frequently considered undesirable, are also important in steel: phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper.

Plain carbon-iron alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as cast iron. With modern steelmaking techniques such as powder metal forming, it is possible to make very high-carbon (and other alloy material) steels, but such are not common. Cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties.[5] Certain compositions of cast iron, while retaining the economies of melting and casting, can be heat treated after casting to make malleable iron or ductile iron objects. Steel is distinguishable from wrought iron (now largely obsolete), which may contain a small amount of carbon but large amounts of slag.

Material properties

Origins and production

An iron-carbon phase diagram showing the conditions necessary to form different phases
An incandescent steel workpiece in a blacksmith's art

Iron is commonly found in the Earth's crust in the form of an ore, usually an iron oxide, such as magnetite or hematite. Iron is extracted from iron ore by removing the oxygen through its combination with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon which is then lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This process, known as smelting, was first applied to metals with lower melting points, such as tin, which melts at about 250 °C (482 °F), and copper, which melts at about 1,100 °C (2,010 °F), and the combination, bronze, which has a melting point lower than 1,083 °C (1,981 °F). In comparison, cast iron melts at about 1,375 °C (2,507 °F).[6] Small quantities of iron were smelted in ancient times, in the solid-state, by heating the ore in a charcoal fire and then welding the clumps together with a hammer and in the process squeezing out the impurities. With care, the carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the fire. Unlike copper and tin, liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily.[citation needed]

All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the Bronze Age. Since the oxidation rate of iron increases rapidly beyond 800 °C (1,470 °F), it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Smelting, using carbon to reduce iron oxides, results in an alloy (pig iron) that retains too much carbon to be called steel.[6] The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step.[citation needed]

Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with the desired properties.

metal fatigue.[7]

To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium can be added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this is known as stainless steel. Tungsten slows the formation of cementite, keeping carbon in the iron matrix and allowing martensite to preferentially form at slower quench rates, resulting in high-speed steel. The addition of lead and sulfur decrease grain size, thereby making the steel easier to turn, but also more brittle and prone to corrosion. Such alloys are nevertheless frequently used for components such as nuts, bolts, and washers in applications where toughness and corrosion resistance are not paramount. For the most part, however, p-block elements such as sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, and lead are considered contaminants that make steel more brittle and are therefore removed from steel during the melting processing.[7]

Properties

Fe-C phase diagram for carbon steels, showing the A0, A1, A2 and A3 critical temperatures for heat treatments

The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents but usually ranges between 7,750 and 8,050 kg/m3 (484 and 503 lb/cu ft), or 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm3 (4.48 and 4.65 oz/cu in).[8]

Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make steel, several different metallurgical structures, with very different properties can form. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At

face-centred cubic (FCC) structure, called gamma iron or γ-iron. The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite. The more open FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%,[9] (38 times that of ferrite) carbon at 1,148 °C (2,098 °F), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel, beyond which is cast iron.[10] When carbon moves out of solution with iron, it forms a very hard, but brittle material called cementite (Fe3C).[citation needed
]

When steels with exactly 0.8% carbon (known as a eutectoid steel), are cooled, the

grains has decreased to the eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which point the pearlite structure forms. For steels that have less than 0.8% carbon (hypoeutectoid), ferrite will first form within the grains until the remaining composition rises to 0.8% of carbon, at which point the pearlite structure will form. No large inclusions of cementite will form at the boundaries in hypoeutectoid steel.[11] The above assumes that the cooling process is very slow, allowing enough time for the carbon to migrate.[citation needed
]

As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the grains; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects within those grains, resulting in hardening of the steel. At the very high cooling rates produced by quenching, the carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face-centred austenite and forms

body-centred tetragonal (BCT) structure. There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite.[clarification needed] There is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors.[12]

Martensite has a lower density (it expands during the cooling) than does austenite, so that the transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of

tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when steel is water quenched, although they may not always be visible.[13]

Heat treatment

There are many types of

annealing, quenching, and tempering
.

Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to relieve local internal stresses. It does not create a general softening of the product but only locally relieves strains and stresses locked up within the material. Annealing goes through three phases: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The temperature required to anneal a particular steel depends on the type of annealing to be achieved and the alloying constituents.[14]

Quenching involves heating the steel to create the austenite phase then quenching it in water or

spheroidite and hence it reduces the internal stresses and defects. The result is a more ductile and fracture-resistant steel.[15]

Production

Iron ore pellets used in the production of steel

When iron is

cast the raw steel product into ingots which would be stored until use in further refinement processes that resulted in the finished product. In modern facilities, the initial product is close to the final composition and is continuously cast into long slabs, cut and shaped into bars and extrusions and heat treated to produce a final product. Today, approximately 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as ingots.[16]

The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and

rails. In modern steel mills these processes often occur in one assembly line, with ore coming in and finished steel products coming out.[17] Sometimes after a steel's final rolling, it is heat treated for strength; however, this is relatively rare.[18]

History

Ancient

Bloomery smelting during the Middle Ages in the 5th to 15th centuries

Steel was known in antiquity and was produced in bloomeries and crucibles.[19][20]

The earliest known production of steel is seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an archaeological site in Anatolia (Kaman-Kalehöyük) and are nearly 4,000 years old, dating from 1800 BC.[21][22]

Steel was produced in Celtic Europe from around 800 BC,[23] high-carbon steel was produced in Britain from 490-375 BC,[24][25] and ultrahigh-carbon steel was produced in the Netherlands from the 2nd-4th centuries AD.[26] The Roman author Horace identifies steel weapons such as the falcata in the Iberian Peninsula, while Noric steel was used by the Roman military.[27]

The reputation of Seric iron of India (wootz steel) grew considerably in the rest of the world.

India using crucibles occurred by the sixth century BC, the pioneering precursor to modern steel production and metallurgy.[19][20]

The

quench-hardened steel,[28] while Chinese of the Han dynasty (202 BC—AD 220) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron, thus producing a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD.[29][30]

There is evidence that carbon steel was made in Western Tanzania by the ancestors of the Haya people as early as 2,000 years ago by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.[31][32][33][34][35][36]

Wootz and Damascus

Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in

Tamilians from South India,[48] the origin of steel technology in India can be conservatively estimated at 400–500 BC.[38][47]

The manufacture of

ancient Sinhalese managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil,[46] a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did.[46][51]

Crucible steel, formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD.[39] In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in Song China using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel, and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that used partial decarburization via repeated forging under a cold blast.[52]

Modern

A Bessemer converter in Sheffield, England

Since the 17th century, the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of iron ore into pig iron in a blast furnace.[53] Originally employing charcoal, modern methods use coke, which has proven more economical.[54][55][56]

Processes starting from bar iron

In these processes,

bar iron, which was then used in steel-making.[53]

The production of steel by the

case hardening armor and files was described in a book published in Naples in 1589. The process was introduced to England in about 1614 and used to produce such steel by Sir Basil Brooke at Coalbrookdale during the 1610s.[57]

The raw material for this process were bars of iron. During the 17th century, it was realized that the best steel came from oregrounds iron of a region north of Stockholm, Sweden. This was still the usual raw material source in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used.[58][59]

Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a crucible rather than having been forged, with the result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots.[59][60]

Processes starting from pig iron

An open hearth furnace in the Museum of Industry in Brandenburg, Germany
White-hot steel pouring out of an electric arc furnace in Brackenridge, Pennsylvania

The modern era in

basic
material to remove phosphorus.

Another 19th-century steelmaking process was the

Siemens-Martin process, which complemented the Bessemer process.[59]
It consisted of co-melting bar iron (or steel scrap) with pig iron.

These methods of steel production were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), developed in 1952,[63] and other oxygen steel making methods. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limited impurities, primarily nitrogen, that previously had entered from the air used,[64] and because, with respect to the open hearth process, the same quantity of steel from a BOS process is manufactured in one-twelfth the time.[63] Today, electric arc furnaces (EAF) are a common method of reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a lot of electrical energy (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity.[65]

Industry

Steel production (in million tons) by country in 2007

The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall economic development.[66] In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had fallen to 224,000.[67]

The

Baosteel Group and Shagang Group. As of 2017, though, ArcelorMittal is the world's largest steel producer.[70] In 2005, the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively.[71] The large production capacity of steel results also in a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions inherent related to the main production route. In 2021, it was estimated that around 7% of the global greenhouse gas emissions resulted from the steel industry.[72][73]
Reduction of these emissions are expected to come from a shift in the main production route using cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of carbon capture and storage or carbon capture and utilization technology.

At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.[74]

Recycling

Steel is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60% globally;[3] in the United States alone, over 82,000,000 metric tons (81,000,000 long tons; 90,000,000 short tons) were recycled in the year 2008, for an overall recycling rate of 83%.[75]

As more steel is produced than is scrapped, the amount of recycled raw materials is about 40% of the total of steel produced - in 2016, 1,628,000,000 tonnes (1.602×109 long tons; 1.795×109 short tons) of crude steel was produced globally, with 630,000,000 tonnes (620,000,000 long tons; 690,000,000 short tons) recycled.[76]

Contemporary

Bethlehem Steel in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania was one of the world's largest manufacturers of steel before its closure in 2003.

Carbon

Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes.

High strength low alloy steel has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase.[77]

Recent

Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations have given rise to a new variety of steel known as Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS). This material is both strong and ductile so that vehicle structures can maintain their current safety levels while using less material. There are several commercially available grades of AHSS, such as dual-phase steel, which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure to produce a formable, high strength steel.[78] Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of austenite at room temperature in normally austenite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain, the austenite undergoes a phase transition to martensite without the addition of heat.[79] Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy.[80]

Carbon Steels are often

galvanized, through hot-dip or electroplating in zinc for protection against rust.[81]

Alloy

Forging a structural member out of steel
Cor-Ten rust coating

magnetic, while others, such as the austenitic, are nonmagnetic.[82]
Corrosion-resistant steels are abbreviated as CRES.

Alloy steels are plain-carbon steels in which small amounts of alloying elements like chromium and vanadium have been added. Some more modern steels include

Standards

Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. For example, the

Society of Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining many types of steel.[86] The American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as A36 steel, the most commonly used structural steel in the United States.[87] The JIS
also defines a series of steel grades that are being used extensively in Japan as well as in developing countries.

Uses

A roll of steel wool

Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure, appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as

nails and screws and other household products and cooking utensils.[88]

Other common applications include

white goods (e.g. washing machines), heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel wool, tool, and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour (better known as rolled homogeneous armour
in this role).

Historical

A carbon steel knife

Before the introduction of the

razors, swords, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It was also used for springs, including those used in clocks and watches.[59]

With the advent of faster and cheaper production methods, steel has become easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel in some applications due to their lower fabrication cost and weight.

Carbon fiber
is replacing steel in some cost insensitive applications such as sports equipment and high-end automobiles.

Long

A steel bridge
A steel pylon suspending overhead power lines

Flat carbon

Weathering (COR-TEN)

Stainless

A stainless steel gravy boat

Low-background

Steel manufactured after

radiation shielding
.

See also

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Bibliography

Further reading

External links

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