Stesichorus
Stesichorus (/stəˈsɪkərəs/; Greek: Στησίχορος, Stēsichoros; c. 630 – 555 BC) was a Greek lyric poet native of today's Calabria (Southern Italy). He is best known for telling epic stories in lyric metres,[1] and for some ancient traditions about his life, such as his opposition to the tyrant Phalaris, and the blindness he is said to have incurred and cured by composing verses first insulting and then flattering to Helen of Troy.
He was ranked among the
Stesichorus also exercised an important influence on the representation of myth in 6th century art,[6] and on the development of Athenian dramatic poetry.[7]
Biography
Stesichorus was born in
Chronology
The specific dates given by the Suda for Stesichorus have been dismissed by one modern scholar as "specious precision"
Family
The Suda's claim that
Background
Stesichorus's lyrical treatment of epic themes was well-suited to a western Greek audience, owing to the popularity of hero-cults in southern Italy and
Career
Many modern scholars don't accept the Suda's claim that Stesichorus was named for his innovations in choral poetry — there are good reasons to believe that his lyrical narratives were composed for solo performance (see Works below). Moreover the name wasn't unique — there seems to have been more than one poet of this name[46] (see Spurious works below). The Suda in yet another entry refers to the fact, now verified by Papyrus fragments, that Stesichorus composed verses in units of three stanzas (strophe, antistrophe and epode), a format later followed by poets such as Bacchylides and Pindar. Suda claims this three-stanza format was popularly referred to as the three of Stesichorus in a proverbial saying rebuking cultural buffoons ("You don't even know the three of Stesichorus!"). According to one modern scholar, however, this saying could instead refer to the following three lines of his poem The Palinode, addressed to Helen of Troy:[47]
- There is no truth in that story,
- You didn't ride in the well-rowed galleys,
- You didn't reach the walls of Troy.[48]
Helen of Troy's bad character was a common theme among poets such as Sappho and Alcaeus[49] and, according to various ancient accounts, Stesichorus viewed her in the same light until she magically punished him with blindness for blaspheming her in one of his poems.[50] According to a colourful account recorded by Pausanias, she later sent an explanation to Stesichorus via a man from Croton, who was on a pilgrimage to White Island in the Black Sea (near the mouth of the Blue Danube), and it was in response to this that Stesichorus composed the Palinode,[51] absolving her of all blame for the Trojan War and thus restoring himself to full sight.
Works
The ancients associated the lyrical qualities of Stesichorus with the voice of the nightingale, as in this quote from the Palatine Anthology: "...at his birth, when he had just reached the light of day, a nightingale, travelling through the air from somewhere or other, perched unnoticed on his lips and struck up her clear song."[52] The account is repeated by Pliny the Elder[53] but it was the epic qualities of his work that most impressed ancient commentators,[46] though with some reservations on the part of Quintilian:
The greatness of Stesichorus' genius is shown among other things by his subject-matter: he sings of the most important wars and the most famous commanders and sustains on his lyre the weight of epic poetry. In both their actions and their speeches he gives due dignity to his characters, and if only he had shown restraint he could possibly have been regarded as a close rival of Homer; but he is redundant and diffuse, a fault to be sure but explained by the abundance of what he had to say. —Quintilian[54]
In a similar vein,
Modern scholars tend to accept the general thrust of the ancient comments – even the 'fault' noted by Quintilian gets endorsement: 'longwindedness', as one modern scholar calls it, citing, as proof of it, the interval of 400 lines separating Geryon's death from his eloquent anticipation of it.[57] Similarly, "the repetitiveness and slackness of the style" of the recently discovered Lille papyrus has even been interpreted by one modern scholar as proof of Stesichorean authorship[58] – though others originally used it as an argument against.[4] Possibly Stesichorus was even more Homeric than ancient commentators realized – they had assumed that he composed verses for performance by choirs (the triadic structure of the stanzas, comprising strophe, antistrophe and epode, is consistent with choreographed movement) but a poem such as the Geryoneis included some 1500 lines and it probably required about four hours to perform – longer than a chorus might reasonably be expected to dance.[59] Moreover, the versatility of lyric meter is suited to solo performance with self-accompaniment on the lyre[60] – which is how Homer himself delivered poetry. Whether or not it was a choral technique, the triadic structure of Stesichorean lyrics allowed for novel arrangements of dactylic meter – the dominant meter in his poems and also the defining meter of Homeric epic – thus allowing for Homeric phrasing to be adapted to new settings. However, Stesichorus did more than recast the form of epic poetry – works such as the Palinode were also a recasting of epic material: in that version of the Trojan War, the combatants fought over a phantom Helen while the real Helen either stayed home or went to Egypt (see a summary below). The 'Lyric Age' of Greece was in part self-discovery and self-expression – as in the works of Alcaeus and Sappho – but a concern for heroic values and epic themes still endured:
Stesichorus'
citharodic narrative points to the simultaneous coexistence of different literary genres and currents in an age of great artistic energy and experimentation. It is one of the exciting qualities of early Greek culture that forms continue to evolve, but the old traditions still remain strong as points of stability and proud community, unifying but not suffocating. —Charles Segal.[61]
Style
The following description of the birthplace of the monster Geryon, preserved as a quote by the geographer Strabo,[62] is characteristic of the "descriptive fulness" of his style:[63]
- σχεδὸν ἀντιπέρας κλεινᾶς Ἐρυθείας
- <
- > Ταρτησ-
- σοῦ ποταμοῦ παρὰ παγὰσ ἀπείρονας ἀρ-
- γυρορίζους
- ἐν κευθμῶνι πέτρας.[64]
A nineteenth century translation imaginatively fills in the gaps while communicating something of the richness of the language:
See The Queen's Speech in the Lille fragment for more on Stesichorus's style.
An "Homeric" simile
The Homeric qualities of Stesichorus' poetry are demonstrated in a fragment of his poem Geryoneis describing the death of the monster Geryon. A scholiast writing in a margin on Hesiod's Theogony noted that Stesichorus gave the monster wings, six hands and six feet, whereas Hesiod himself had only described it as 'three-headed'.[66] yet Stesichorus adapted Homeric motifs to create a humanized portrait of the monster,[67] whose death in battle mirrors the death of Gorgythion in Homer's Iliad, translated here by Richmond Lattimore:
- He bent drooping his head to one side, as a garden poppy
- bends beneath the weight of its yield and the rains of springtime;" (Iliad 8.306-8)[68]
Homer here transforms Gorgythion's death in battle into a thing of beauty—the poppy has not wilted or died.[69] Stesichorus adapted the simile to restore Death's ugliness while still retaining the poignancy of the moment:[70]
- Then Geryon rested his neck to one side
- As might a poppy when it mars
- The tenderness of its body shedding
- Suddenly all of its petals... (Geryoneis)[71]
- Then Geryon rested his neck to one side
The mutual self-reflection of the two passages is part of the novel aesthetic experience that Stesichorus here puts into play.[72] The enduring freshness of his art, in spite of its epic traditions, is borne out by Ammianus Marcellinus in an anecdote about Socrates: happening to overhear, on the eve of his own execution, the rendition of a song of Stesichorus, the old philosopher asked to be taught it: "So that I may know something more when I depart from life."[73]
The 26 books
According to the Suda, the works of Stesichorus were collected in 26 books, but each of these was probably a long, narrative poem. The titles of more than half of them are recorded by ancient sources:[74]
- Helen: This might have been the poem in which he portrayed Helen of Troy according to convention as a bad character.[34] His interest in the Trojan epic cycle is evinced in a number of works.[75]
- Helen: Palinodes: An introduction to a poem of Theocritus refers to "the first book of Stesichorus's Helen",[76] indicating that there were at least two books under this title. Similarly, a commentary recorded on a papyrus, indicates there were two Palinodes, one censuring Homer, the other Hesiod for the false story that Helen went to Troy.[77] Dio Chrysostom summarises two accounts of the Palinode, one in which Helen never sailed for Troy, and a second in which she ended up in Egypt[78] – only her image arrived at Troy. It is not known if either of the two Palinodes was separate from the Helen book(s).[79]
- Sack of Troy: Some scholars think the content of the poem can be deduced from a relief carved onto a monument near Rome, but this is contentious – see the section below Tabula Iliaca.
- Wooden Horse: The title was recorded in a fragmentary form on a roll of papyrus: Στη...Ίππ.. ~ Ste(sichorus's Wooden) Hor(se). Possibly it was just an alternative title for Sack of Troy.[80]
- Nostoi (The Returns): This dealt with the return of the Greek warriors from Troy.
- Geryoneis: This relates the theft by Heracles of Geryon's cattle. Many recently discovered fragments allow us a glimpse of the poet at work over the length of the entire poem.[81] It includes:
- romantic geography – descriptions of the Sun's voyage in a golden cup under Ocean, of Arcadia, which possibly featured as the home of the Centaur, Pholus;
- poignant speeches based on Homeric models – a proud speech by Geryon to Heracles that echoes Sarpedon's speech to Glaucus,
- heroic action, again with Homeric colouring – a description of the dying Geryon that echoes the death of Gorgythion.[85]
- romantic geography – descriptions of the Sun's voyage in a golden cup under Ocean, of
- Cerberus: The title is mentioned by Julius Pollux only because it included the Greek word for a purse but clearly it relates to Heracles's descent into Hades to fetch Cerberus.[86]
- Cycnus: A
- Skylla: The title is mentioned by a scholiast on
- Thebaid, Seven Against Thebes?: These two titles are conjectured by one modern scholar[89] as appropriate for the longest fragment attributed to Stesichorus – discovered in 1974 among the wrappings of a mummy of the 2nd century BC stored at the university of Lille, generally known as The Lille Stesichorus. It presents a speech by a Theban queen, possibly Jocasta, and some scholars have denied attribution to Stesichorus on account of its "drab, repetitious flaccidity".[90] But opinions are mixed and one scholar sees in it "...Stesichorus' full mastery of his technique, handling epic situations and characters with the flexibility and poignancy of lyric."[61]
- Eriphyle: The title is mentioned by Sextus Empiricus in relation to an imaginative account of Asclepius raising the dead at Thebes.[91] Evidently it concerns Eriphyle's role in the Theban epic cycle but with an imaginative twist.
- Europa: The title is mentioned by a scholiast on the
- Oresteia: It came in two parts. The title is mentioned by a scholiast on
- Boar-hunters: Calydonian Boar.[95]
- Funeral Games of Pelias: The title is recorded by Zenobius,[96] Athenaeus[97] and Etymologicum Magnum,[98] the last two of which also include a handful of quotes.
Spurious works
Some poems were wrongly attributed to Stesichorus by ancient sources, including
Tabula Iliaca
References
- ^ Charles Segal, "Archaic Choral Lyric" in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (eds.), Cambridge University Press (1985), page 186
- ^ D.A. Campbell (ed.), Greek Lyric Vol 3, Loeb Classical Library (1991) page 5
- ^ David Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), page 253, reprinted from 1967 Macmillan edition
- ^ a b P.J. Parsons, "The Lille Stesichorus", Zeitschreift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik Vol. 26 (1977), pages 7–36
- ^ Charles Segal, "Archaic Choral Lyric" in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (eds.), Cambridge University Press (1985), page 187; Steve Reece, "Homeric Influence in Stesichorus' Nostoi," Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 25 (1988) 1-8.
- ^ C.M. Bowra, Greek Lyric Poetry, Oxford University Press (1961), pages 119–26
- ^ Richard Jebb, Bacchylides: The poems and fragments Cambridge University Press (1905), page 32 Google digitalized version
- ^ "Stesichorus". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ "Writers History - Stesichorus". writershistory.com. Archived from the original on 2014-07-14.
- ^ "Ooops! I can't find the page you're looking for". calabria.nu. Archived from the original on 2011-08-10. Retrieved 2012-09-13.
- ISBN 9780823210497.
- ^ "p.114-5. A History of Ancient Greek Literature". forgottenbooks.com. Archived from the original on 2014-07-14.
- ^ M.L.West, 'Stesichorus', The Classical Quarterly, New Series Vol.21, No.2 (Nov. 1971) page 302
- ^ Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 186-7
- ^ Campbell in Loeb page 3
- ^ Aristotle Rhet. 2.20.1393b, cited by David A.Campbell, Greek Lyric III: Stesichorus, Ibycus, Simonides and Others, Loeb Classical Library (1991), page 39
- ^ Tzetzes Vit.Hes. 18, cited by David A.Campbell, Greek Lyric III: Stesichorus, Ibycus, Simonides and Others, Loeb Classical Library (1991), page 33
- ^ Lucian Macr., cited by David A.Campbell, Greek Lyric III: Stesichorus, Ibycus, Simonides and Others, Loeb Classical Library (1991), page 33
- ^ Hieronymus Epistles 52.3, David A.Campbell, Greek Lyric III: Stesichorus, Ibycus, Simonides and Others, Loeb Classical Library (1991), page 33
- ^ Cicero Verr. 2.2.86, cited by David A.Campbell, Greek Lyric III: Stesichorus, Ibycus, Simonides and Others, Loeb Classical Library (1991), page 45
- ^ Eusebius Chron., cited by David A.Campbell, Greek Lyric III: Stesichorus, Ibycus, Simonides and Others, Loeb Classical Library (1991), page 31
- ^ Cambell, Loeb page 35
- ^ Tzetzes Vit.Hes. 18, cited by Campbell, Loeb page 35
- ^ Proclus Hes. Op. 271a, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 35
- ^ Cicero De Rep. 2.20, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 37
- ^ Jasper Griffin, "Greek Myth and Hesiod", J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray (eds), The Oxford History of the Classical World, Oxford University Press (1986), page 88
- ^ Charles Segal, "Archaic Choral Lyric" in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 191
- ^ Richard Lattimore translation, "Hesiod" Intro. pp. 5, The University of Michigan Press, 1959
- s.v.Μάταυρος, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 35
- ^ Plato Phaedrus 244a, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 37
- ^ Inscriptiones Graecae xiv 1213, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 37
- ^ Proclus in Euclid Prolog. 2, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 37
- ^ Richard Jebb, Bacchylides: The poems and fragments Cambridge Uni Press (1905), page 32
- ^ a b Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 191
- ^ G.O.Hutchinson, Greek Lyric Poetry: a commentary on selected larger pieces, Oxford University Press (2001), page 113
- ^ Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 186
- ^ G.O.Hutchinson, Greek Lyric Poetry: a commentary on selected larger pieces, Oxford University press (2001), page 115
- ^ Vibius Sequester, de fluminibus fontibus etc, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 181
- ^ Himerius Orationes 27.27, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 181
- ^ Pausanias 8.3.2, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 89
- ^ W.G.Forrest, A History of Sparta 950–192 BC, page 76, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 28, note 4
- ^ Aristotle Rhet. 2.21. 1394b-95a, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 39
- ^ Phildemus Mus. 1.30.31ss, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 41
- ^ Photius Lexicon, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 45
- ^ Pollux 9.100, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 43
- ^ a b Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 187
- ^ note 2 to Suda T 943, Campbell in Loeb page 49
- ^ Plato Phaedr. 243a, cited by Campbell in Loeb page 93
- ^ Sappho 16.6–10 and Alcaeus B 10 PLF, cited by Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 191
- ^ Isocrates Hel. 64, cited by Campbell in Loeb, page 93
- ^ Pausanias 3.19.11–13, cited by Campbell in Loeb, page 41 (Campbell's translation: "In the Black Sea off the mouths of the Danube there is an island called White Island...note: Actually off the estuary of the Dnieper.")
- ^ Anth.Pal. 2.125ss, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, pages 59
- ^ Plin.N.H.10.82, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 55
- ^ Quintilian Inst.10.1.62, cited by David Cambell, Loeb, pages 59
- ^ Dion.Hal.Imit.2.421, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, pages 55
- ^ Longinus de subl.13.3, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, pages 55
- ^ David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric III, Loeb Classical Library (1991), page 4
- ^ Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 186, note 2
- ^ C.O.Pavese, Tradizione e generi poetici della Graecia arcaica, Rome (1972), cited by C.Segal, The Cambridge History of Greek Literature, page 187
- ^ M.L.West, 'Stesichorus', Classical Quarterly 21 (1971) pages 302–14, cited by D.Campbell in Greek Lyric III, page 5
- ^ a b Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 200
- ^ Strabo 3.2.11 = Stesichorus S7 = PMG 184.
- ^ Charles Segal, "Archaic Choral Lyric" in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (eds.), Cambridge University Press (1985), page 188
- ^ Stesichorus (S7 Loeb): D.A. Campbell (ed.), Greek Lyric Vol 3, Loeb Classical Library (1991) page 64
- ^ Sir Edward Bromhead, The Remains of Stesichorus in an English Version, (1849), page 11 Google digitalized version
- ^ Schol.Hes.Theog.287, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 89
- ^ Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 190, 194–95
- ^ Iliad 8.306-8, translated by Richmond Lattimore, The Iliad of Homer, University of Chicago Press (1951)
- ^ Susanne Lindgren Wofford, The Choice of Achilles: The Ideology of Figure in the Epic. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992.
- ^ Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 190
- ^ Geryoneis, P.Oxy.2617 fr.5, cited by D.Campbell, Greek Lyric III page 76
- ^ Richard Garner, From Homer to Tragedy: the art of allusion in Greek poetry, Routledge (1990), page 17
- ^ Amm.Marc.28.4.15, cited by D.Campbell, Greek Lyric III page 56
- ^ David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), page 254
- ^ See M. Noussia-Fantuzzi in M. Fantuzzi and C. Tsagalis, eds., "The Epic Cycle and Its Ancient Reception," 2015; also P. J. Finglass and A. Kelly, eds. Stesichorus in Context, 2015.
- ^ Argum.Theocr.18, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 91
- ^ P.Oxy.2506 fr.26col.i, cited by David Cambell, Loeb, page 97
- ^ Dio Chrysostom Or.11.40s, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 95
- ^ Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 192
- ^ David Campbell, Loeb, pages 109, 119
- ^ a b Charles Segal, 'Archaic Choral Lyric' – P. Easterling and E. Kenney (eds), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press (1985), page 193
- ^ Iliad 12.310-280
- ^ Iliad 18
- ^ Iliad 22
- ^ Iliad 8.306-8.
- ^ Pollux 10.152, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 121
- ^ Schol.A.Pind.10.19, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 123
- ^ Schol.Ap.Rhod.4.825-31, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 133
- ^ David Campbell, Loeb, page 137
- ^ Anne Burnett, "Jocasta in the West: The Lille Stesichorus", Classical Antiquity Vol.7, No.2 (Oct 1988) page 107
- ^ Sextus Empiricus adv.mathem. 1.261, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 97
- ^ Schol.Eur.Phoen. 670, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 101
- ^ Ar.Pax 797ss, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 127
- ^ Schola.Vat. in Dion.Thrac. Art. 6, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 129
- ^ Athen. 3.95d, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 133
- ^ Zenobius vi 44, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 63
- ^ Athenaeus 4.172de, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 63
- ^ Et.Mag. 544.54, cited by David Campbell, Loeb, page 61
- ^ Marm.Par. Ep.50, cited by Charles Segal in 'Archaic Choral Lyric' page 192
- ^ I.G.14.1284
- ^ Zahra Newby, Art and Inscription in the Ancient World, Cambridge University Press (2006), Introduction
- ^ David A.Campbell, Greek Lyric III, Loeb Classical Library (1991), page 107
- ^ Charles Seagal, Archaic Choral Lyric, 'The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature', Cambridge University Press (1985), page 196, note 1
Further reading
- Barrett, W. S., Greek Lyric, Tragedy, and Textual Criticism: Collected Papers, edited for publication by M. L. West (Oxford & New York, 2007)
- Carson, Anne, Autobiography of Red. Modern retelling of Stesichoros' fragments.
- Plato, Phaedrus.
- M. Davies, Poetarum Melicorum Graecorum Fragmenta (PMGF) vol. 1, Oxford 1991: testimonies of his life and works pp. 134–151, fragments pp. 152–234 (previously D. L. Page, Poetae Melici Graeci (PMG), Oxford 1962, and Supplementum Lyricis Graecis (SLG), Oxford 1974).
- D. A. Campbell, Greek Lyric III: Stesichorus, Ibycus, Simonides and Others (Loeb Classical Library).
- G. O. Hutchinson, Greek Lyric Poetry: A Commentary on Selected Larger Pieces (Alcman, Stesichorus, Sappho, Alcaeus, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides, Bacchylides, Pindar, Sophocles, Euripides), Oxford, 2001.
- J. M. Edmonds, Lyra Graeca II, pp. 23 (Loeb Classical Library) Harvard University Press, 1958
External links
- Media related to Stesichorus at Wikimedia Commons
- Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Στησίχορος