Stjepan Vukčić Kosača

It was Stjepan's herceg title that gave rise to the name of Herzegovina (Serbo-Croatian: Hercegovina), which was used as early as 1 February 1454 in a letter Ottoman commander Esebeg wrote from Skopje. In 1470, Herzegovina was separated from the Sanjak of Bosnia and re-organized into the Sanjak of Herzegovina, with a seat in Foča. The name remains in use for the southernmost region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The town of Herceg Novi in present-day Montenegro, which was founded by Tvrtko I of Bosnia as Sveti Stefan—the name that from the beginning gave way to a name Novi (literally "New"; also known as Castelnuovo in Italian, New Castle in English)—later came to Kosača possession and become their winter seat. During this era, the town was renamed again by adding Stjepan's title herceg (Serbo-Croatian pronunciation of German herzog) to the name Novi, which gave it the current name of Herceg Novi.

Early life and rise

Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, who was probably born in 1404, was the son of

Stjepan was the fraternal nephew of one of the powerful Bosnian magnates Sandalj Hranić, who was the Bosnian Grand Duke and chieftain of the Kosača family. In 1419, Stjepan's uncle Sandalj, who was childless, decided to choose him as his heir.^[4] When his father died in 1432, Stjepan inherited his lands in Upper Drina along with the title Knez of Drina that came with it.^[4] Sandalj died on 15 March 1435 and Stjepan succeeded him,^[5] becoming the most-powerful nobleman in Bosnia. Along with Sandalj's noble titles, Stjepan inherited his uncle's lands with all of the attendant obligations, alliances, antagonisms, and conflicting interests.^[6] Like his uncle, Stjepan became the most-powerful Bosnian magnate of his time and had the most influence of any nobleman upon the development of the late-medieval Kingdom of Bosnia.^[7]

In the first two decades of the 15th century, following the death of its first king

Along with his father and uncles Sandalj and Vuk, Stjepan was admitted into the

It was customary for the republic to grant all the major Bosnian nobility a status of citizenry and republic's nobility. It was also customary to grant them a palace and a refuge in case of need in Dubrovnik. The City Council granted Stjepan, and his sons Vladislav and Vlatko, citizenship by the charter dated 30 October 1435, a palace and a refuge by the same charter.^[14]

Struggle for family inheritance

In 1435, a few days after Sandalj's death, legitimate Bosnian king Tvrtko II was forced to flee when the Ottomans put forward

Sigismund then turned to Stjepan's other enemies within and outside Bosnia. He successfully sought help from Bosnian noblemen against Stjepan, most of all the Radivojevićs and Vojsalićs, and tried to persuade Dubrovnik to join this coalition. Sigismund also ordered his own vassals, primarily Matko Talovac and other Croatian noblemen of the Frankopan family, to attack and retain the land of Hum for him.^[16][17]

Conflicts in Neretva and with Pavlovićs

The first of all major Bosnian nobility to act was Radislav Pavlović who engaged Stjepan in the eastern Hum, while the Vojsalićs and Radivojevićs attacked in the

The Republic of Venice also tried to take advantage during the transfer of power from Sandalj to Stjepan. Venice unsuccessfully tried to take over the fortress of Novi via neighboring Kotor and its knez's maneuvering. Venice thought it could take the town by exerting pressure and influence on the fortress' castellan (governor).^[20] Despite the problems, and with some critical moments, Stjepan firmly retained the town.^[23]

During these initial struggles, Stjepan had help from the Ottomans, who supported him, and he had Bosnian anti-king Radivoj at his court. Stjepan's situation was difficult but not critical. He invited the Ottomans to Bosnia, and they helped him to overcome all of his adversities.^[24]

Acquiring Trebinje

During the initial conflicts for his inheritance, Stjepan Vukčić's most persistent adversary was Duke Radislav Pavlović, against whom the alliance between King Tvrtko II and Stjepan turned.

At the beginning of 1440, Radislav Pavlović's situation dramatically changed. Because he owed the Sultan a large sum of money, probably having indebted himself during the campaigns to regain his lands and Trebinje in 1439, the Sultan decided Stjepan Vukčić should repay that debt and in return regain Trebinje and its surroundings from Pavlović. In March, Stjepan recaptured Trebinje, which caused war to break out, and in April, new negotiations between the "two main eyes of the Bosnian kingdom", as the Ragusans used to say pandering to Stjepan's vanity, while trying to mediate between the two noblemen.[27]

While Bosnians were fighting for personal and petty-proprietary reasons, events around them hinted at problems with far-reaching consequences that would shake the country in the years to come. The Ragusans, guided by logic and observing Ottoman policy, which was quite transparent, advised King Tvrtko II, Duke Stjepan and Duke Radislav to jointly implore the Sultan to lower his impossible demands, and suggested it would be best and easiest if the three men together pay the Sultan thousands of ducats for Radislav's lands. They warned their Bosnian neighbors friendship bought for money is neither firm nor permanent, and indicated the fate of other regional lords, Serbs, Byzantines, Albanians, who had perished or suffered as a result of their own discord. Neither the fall of Serbia nor increasing Ottoman pressure made the Bosnian lords any less reckless. Stjepan and Radislav continued their quarrel while litigating before the Porte through envoys.^[27]

Incursion into Zeta

At the beginning of July 1439, Murad II set out to conquer Bosnia's eastern neighbor the Serbian despotate, and was joined by his Bosnian vassal Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, who participated in a devastation of Serb realm. At the same time in the west, Albert II of Germany, who acceded to the Hungarian throne after Sigismund died in late 1437, also died two years later. A lengthy succession crisis broke out in Hungary, which prompted Bosnian Duke Stjepan Vukčić and King Tvrtko II to conquer the lands of Croatian lord Matija Talovac.^[28] Stjepan immediately besieged Omiš, which fell to him after eight months, and probably took Poljica from the Croatian ban. Bosnians continued their offensive against the Croatian ban and his family until June 1441, when the Talovac brothers sought a truce.^[27]

After the Ottomans' conquest of the

Attempts to restore the Bosnian kingdom, mostly under the auspices of external powers, primarily Hungarians whom historiography sees as major culprit for its fall,^[90] lasted until the beginning of the 16th century.^[91] As early as 1465, the Ottomans installed Matija Šabančić, son of Radivoj, as the titular king of Bosnia, while the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus, installed Nicholas of Ilok on the Hungarian side as early as 1471. The Ottomans responded by appointing Hrvoje's great grandnephew Matija Vojsalić as the new titular king. But all these external interests and pretensions, which intertwined around the Bosnian crown and state territory, had nothing to do with real Bosnian independence—the independent Bosnian state tradition played no role in whatever was intended by either the Hungarians or the Ottomans.^[91]

The only real remnants of the independent Bosnian state were last stretches of land held by Vlatko in Hum.

Duke Stjepan was not the first Bosnian nobleman to bear the title of herceg. Another Bosnian magnate, Hrvoje Vukčić, wore the title Herceg of Split, which he received from Ladislav of Naples some half a century earlier. It seems this fact must have left a very strong impression and was constantly on the duke Stjepan's mind, because he at first tried to acquire this exact same title, Herceg of Split, from King Alfons V.^[99] This kind of internal Bosnian dynamic was met with little or no interest, although in medieval Europe, a strict hierarchical order did not allow such "usurpation" to pass unnoticed.^[99] In Bosnia, this event could have passed unnoticed, but a relaxed attitude was usual in the Bosnian political context.^[99]

According to

Medievalist Sima Ćirković noted earlier historians harshly criticized Stjepan's subservient relations with the Ottomans, and noted such relations were characteristic for all Bosnian and other Balkans lords at the time; it was practically a norm of that period. Ćirković also writes Stjepan spent his few last years as a staunch adversary of the Ottomans.^[100] He concluded that Stjepan probably wished to emphasize his importance with the Ottoman court but that adding the new herceg title had hardly more than symbolic significance because Stjepan remained for the rest of his life the Grand Duke of Bosnia.^[32] According to historians, Stjepan's acquisition of the title herceg gave the name to a province, becoming one of his enduring legacies.^{[101][96][32]}

Religion

Like most Bosnian nobleman of the era,^[103][104] Stjepan Vukčić considered himself a staunch Krstjanin,^[43] as adherents of the Bosnian Church were known and its members called themselves. His attitude toward the Bosnian Church was highlighted when King Tvrtko II died in September 1443. The events that ensued from Stjepan's refusal to recognize the deceased king's cousin and chosen heir Thomas as the new King of Bosnia created a political crisis that culminated in civil war. Thomas had converted to Roman Catholicism, a move that was catastrophic for the Krstjani and the Bosnian Church. Thomas' decision to convert was political maneuvering, albeit founded on sound reasoning, and was intended to save the realm. Thomas committed himself to demonstrate his devotion by engaging in religious prosecution against his recent fellow coreligionists. These developments prompted Stjepan to give the Krstjanins of the Bosnian Church safe haven and join the Ottomans in support of Bosnian anti-King Radivoj, Thomas' exiled brother, who remained a Bosnian Church adherent despite Thomas' crusade against the church's adherents.^[105]

The Kosača family belonged to the Bosnian Church but were "shaky Christians" like most of their countrymen.^[106][107] Traditionally, most Bosnians' attitudes towards religion—including those of Stjepan Vukčić—were uncommonly flexible for Europe of the era.^[106] As a Krstjanin, Stjepan titled himself after the shrine of an Orthodox saint while maintaining close relations with the papacy. His eldest child Catherine, who had also been a Krstjanka, converted to Roman Catholicism,^[42] while his youngest child Stjepan adopted Islam and changed his name to Ahmed after moving to Constantinople in about 1473.^{[106][107][108]}

This religious flexibility was higlighted again in 1454, when Duke Stjepan erected an Orthodox church in

Duke Stjepan also requested Catholic missionaries to be sent from southern Italy to proselytize in Bosnia and expressed a desire to become Catholic himself,[42] while developing close relations and allying himself with the Ottoman Muslims. The Holy See in the Vatican treated Stjepan as a Catholic while simultaneously the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople considered him Orthodox,^[105] but they also laid claims of him being heretic and belonging to the Bosnian Church–the pope IV explicitly accused Herceg of such transgression.^[112]

Stjepan was a lifelong protector of the Bosnian Church Krstjani and kept a high-ranking prelate of the Church, a diplomat and ambassador, a well-known and highly influential

Around 1450, the possessions of the Kosača family included

Personal life

Stjepan Vukčić ancestry tree[117]
Vuk Kosača unknown Vlatko Vuković Hrana Vuković Anka Sandalj Hranić JelenaKatrinaJelena Vukac Hranić Katarina Vuk Hranić Teodora Stjepan Vukčić

Stjepan Vukčić was married three times. In 1424, he married

Latin: filia illustris ducis de Payro), probably illigitemate daughter of Duke Henry XVI. She died in 1459.^[108] In 1460, Stjepan was married to a German woman named Cecilie.^[117]

Issue

With his first wife Jelena Balšić, he had at least four children:^[117]

• King Tomaš of Bosnia
  , and leaving Bosnian Church converted to Catholicism;
• Vladislav Hercegović (c. 1427–1489), Grand Duke of Bosnia, Lord of Krajina,^[118] married Kyra Ana, daughter of Georgios Kantakuzenos in 1455;
• Vlatko Hercegović (c. 1428–1489), Herceg of St. Sava, married an Apulian noblewoman;
• Grand Vizier and Grand Admiral to the Sultan, married Sultan Bayezid II
  's daughter, Fatima, in 1482; and had descendants by her.

With his second wife Barbara, he had at least two children:[117]

• son (1456), a short-lived child whose name is not known;
• Mara, daughter.

Historiography, personality and legacy

In historiography

Herceg Sefan Vukčić Kosača i njegovo doba, by S. Ćirković, 1964 (cover).

Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, by Lj. Jovanović, 1891 (cover).

Before publication of the historical biography by Sima Ćirković, Herceg Stefan Vukčić-Kosača i njegovo doba (transl. Herceg Stefan Kosača and his time), and despite the large number of archival sources, historiography lacked a critical monograph on Stjepan's life using modern scientific methodology.

Papal curia, also General Archive of the Crown of Aragon in Barcelona, and one in Buda, Hungary, are sources of information on the political and diplomatic history of the time. Especially valuable are Mavro Orbini's and Jakov Lukarević's first historical works on Stjepan's life and career. These texts were written when the systematic use of archival sources was not yet utilized.^[119]

At the end of the 19th century,

Mihajlo Dinić, and Vladimir Ćorović.^[119]

Personality

According to Sima Ćirković, assessing information about Stjepan Vukčić Kosača's personality from contemporary documents is unhelpful because they were created under specific circumstances to satisfy political and economic needs, so they are often idiosyncratic and biased.[120] The representation of Stjepan's personality and image based on contemporaneous statements from merchants and ambassadors from Dubrovnik are biased. Accounts arising from contact with Stjepan and depending on the circumstances contained courteous praise of his wisdom, political prudence, law-abiding righteousness, and generosity, and fierce condemnation and insult when circumstances demanded it.^[120]

The scarcity of sources did not discourage historians whose assessment of Stjepan's character is unflattering ^[120] Early-modern Dubrovnik historian Jakov Lukarević (fl. 1551–1615) described Stjepan with conspicuous indignation: "He barely knew the letters" and "he was all given over to rage, wine, and living with slave-girls and harlots".^[121] Stjepan's "characterization" particularly concerned Medievalist Lajos Thallóczy, who made several harsh assessments; according to him, Stjepan "could have been a model for a Balkan Machiavelli"; "is a typical Balkan knez who can serve as a model"; "we find no ethical features in him, nothing sympathetic, only a marauder"; and "neither his word nor his written promise could be trusted".^[121]

Thallóczy's characterization was taken over by Konstantin Jireček, who added Stjepan was a "loyal vassal of Porte". He paraphrased Thallóczy, calling Stjepan "cunning, capricious, brutal and a coward, a friend of wine and women, unusually reckless in choosing means, but with a highly developed ability to notice a change in the political circumstance".^[121] According to Vladimir Ćorović, Stjepan had "a strong will and a bad temper", "had strength and skills, but no morale", and saying "since coming to power, he was surprising the world with his ruthlessness, by which he provoked conflicts not only with his neighbors but even in his own family".^[122][121]

Ćirković criticized these descriptions, especially Thallóczy's because of his "inherent superficiality and pretentiousness" and based almost entirely on the author's "ideological beliefs [rather] than on a sober examination of the source". He also noted "the historical role of Duke Stjepan in recent historiography is dominated by condemnation for serving the Turks", and that such judgmental assessments never take into account many circumstances. Ćirković added: "the common feature of all assessments of Herceg's character is that it was seldom taken into account the extent to which Stjepan's qualities were only his, and not the characteristics of the entire society of that time".^[121]

Ćirković concludes, "inversion, treachery, inconsistency cannot be used to characterize any one person from the Bosnian history of the 15th century, because these are characteristics of all feudal lords of that time".^[121]

Legacy

The medieval town Novi was founded as a fortress in a small fishing village in 1382 by the first King of Bosnia Tvrtko I Kotromanić, and was originally named Sveti Stefan (Saint Stephen). After the death of Tvrtko, Duke Sandalj Hranić acquired Sveti Stefan. During his reign, the town began trading salt. When Hranić died, his nephew Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, inherited it. During his reign, the town grew in importance and became Stjepan's winter seat and was renamed Herceg Novi.^[123]

The name "Herzegovina" is the most-important and indelible legacy of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača; it is unique within the Serbo-Croatian-speaking Balkans, because one person gave his noble title, which in the last few years of his life became inseparable from his name, to a region that was previously called Humska zemlja or Hum.^[101] Herzegovina still exists with the name Bosnia and Herzegovina.^[96][32]

This is a superficial understanding because the appearance of the name Herzegovina, which is recorded in 1 February 1454 in a letter written by the Ottoman commander Esebeg from Skopje,

Tvrtko I; Sandalj Hranić expanded it and reaffirmed the Kosača family's supremacy.^[32]

Stjepan is mentioned in Marin Držić's oeuvre, in one replica in the play Džuho Krpeta, performed in 1554 at the feast of Rad Gučetić and Anica Đurđević. It is the most damaged Držić's manuscript, which was preserved in the prints made in 1702 by Đuro Matijašević. The replica has no indication of who is saying it, but it mentions Bosnian duke: "Brjemena slatka i pritila hercega Stjepana" ("Pregnant sweet and companion of Herceg Stjepan").^[124][125]

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• Maglajlić, Munib (2005). "Naučni skup Herceg Stjepan Vukčić Kosača i njegovo doba". Zbornik radova sa naučnog skupa [Proceedings from Scientific conference Mostar 23 May 2003] (in Bosnian). Mostar: BZK Preporod, Gradsko društvo Mostar. WorldCat.org.
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Further reading

Library resources about
Stjepan Vukčić Kosača

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• Online books
• Resources in your library
• Resources in other libraries

• Maglajlić, Munib, ed. (2005). Zbornik radova / Naučni skup (23 May 2003): Herceg Stjepan Vukčić Kosača i njegovo doba [Proceedings / Scientific conference: Herceg Stjepan Vukčić Kosač and his times]. Conference papers and proceedings (in Serbo-Croatian). Mostar: BZK Preporod, Gradsko društvo Mostar.
  ISBN 9958-9457-5-4
  .