Strategic Air Command in the United Kingdom
Bases of the United States Air Force Strategic Air Command in the United Kingdom | |||||
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Part of the Cold War | |||||
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Between 1948 and 1992, personnel and aircraft of the United States Air Force (USAF)
The original bases in
In 1953 the propeller-driven B-29s and B-50s were replaced with
With the introduction of
Early Cold War tensions
During
In August 1946,
In 1946, there were three bases in the UK that met these requirements:
A survey of 105 airfields in the UK found another 23 suitable to be extended for use with the B-29.
Two incidents in August 1946, in which one USAAF
The US
B-29 deployments
Berlin Blockade
When the
The presence of B-29s in the prompted members of the House of Commons, notably John Platts-Mills, to ask the
The B-29 groups in the UK and the depot at RAF Burtonwood were placed under the newly formed B-29 Task Force at RAF Marham on 2 July. On 16 July, this became the 3rd Air Division (Provisional), under the command of Colonel Stanley T. Wray. Major General Leon W. Johnson assumed command on 23 August. He moved his headquarters to Bushy Park on 8 September, and then to Victoria Park Estate (later, USAF Station) at RAF South Ruislip on 15 April 1949.[25][27]
The B-29s deployed during the Berlin Blockade conducted intensive training.
Base development
The bases in the UK were still considered inadequate for the deployment of three groups, much less the six called for in the
The Air Ministry estimated the cost of construction at the four airbases at £7.717 million (equivalent to £241 million in 2021), and asked for £1.8 million in the budget for
To make the bases capable of handling the larger Convair B-36 Peacemaker and Boeing B-47 Stratojet, then under development, the runways at Upper Heyford and Greenham Common were extended to 3,000 metres (10,000 ft) by building on the overshoot areas, thereby minimising the loss of agricultural land but eroding the safety margin. In addition to extending the runways, infrastructure added included control towers, communications, runway lights, radio beacons, and ground-controlled approach (GCA) equipment.[32] Works were carried out by both the United States Army Corps of Engineers and British firms. The different voltage used by the mains electricity supply in the UK meant that all equipment brought from the US required large transformers. Cold weather hampered construction, as did interruptions to the electricity supply caused by a national coal shortage. There were also shortages of aviation spirit due to inefficient deliveries. Personnel found the accommodation provided austere, with no hot water, only pot bellied stoves for heat, dim light bulbs, and few or no recreational facilities.[31]
B-50 deployments
Nuclear weapons
In February 1949, the
On 3 September 1949, a WB-29 over the north Pacific Ocean detected a large radiation cloud. Analysis showed that this cloud was from an atomic explosion on the Asian mainland sometime between 26 and 29 August. The Soviet Union had an atomic bomb earlier than the US expected it.
An act of sabotage did occur. On 23 July 1950, four B-29s of the 301st Bombardment Group at RAF Lakenheath were damaged by their British Army guards, who damaged plexiglas panels and wing flaps, and punctured the tyres with their bayonets. Three soldiers were arraigned before secret courts martial. Johnson reported to Le May that the men were draftees who were resentful at being ordered overseas, and that they did not appear to be Communists. Two were found guilty of
Command arrangements
SAC units remained under Johnson's command, and he was the main point of contact between the USAF and the British government. He was not answerable to Le May, but to General
The 3rd Air Division became the
The bases used by the USAF were initially manned by the RAF, but by the early 1950s it was facing severe financial and personnel shortages.
Aerial refuelling and reconnaissance
Neither the B-29 nor the B-50 had the range to reach distant targets in the Soviet Union, so
SAC developed a new method of refuelling, the flying boom, and 116 B-29s were converted to the KB-29P configuration that employed it. A pair of KB-29Ps from the 93rd Air Refueling Squadron deployed to the UK in June 1951. Although SAC continued to use the KB-29P until 1957, the last KB-29P deployment to the UK was of the 2nd Air Refueling Squadron, which was at RAF Lakenheath from September to December 1952. The final KB-29M deployment was of the 43rd Air Refueling Squadron, which deployed to RAF Lakenheath from March to June 1953. The KB-29Ms were scrapped soon after.[48][49]
Four SAC RB-29As of the
B-36 deployments
The Convair B-36 Peacemaker had its origins in wartime plans to bomb
Over the next six years, B-36s made several visits to the UK for short periods of time. On 7 February 1953, dense fog and inadequate GCA at RAF Fairford caused the crew of a B-36H from the
B-47 deployments
Wing deployments
The B-47 jet bomber had been under development since 1944, and in the stringent financial situation of the early post-war years the USAF decided to prioritise development of the B-47 rather than purchase more B-50s.[56] Experience in the Korean War amply demonstrated what the SAC planners had long suspected: that propeller-driven bombers were no match for Soviet jet fighters, even at night,[57] and the B-29, B36 and B-50 bomber force was fast losing credibility as a deterrent.[58] Rushing the B-47 into service entailed a series of costly and extensive modifications,[56] and the aircraft had a frightful safety record; over its lifetime there were 203 crashes, representing a loss rate of around 10 per cent,[59] resulting in 242 fatalities.[60] In May 1952, in preparation for the arrival of B-47s in the UK, SAC ruled that all runways had to be at least 3,400 metres (11,300 ft) long to permit operations in the heat of the English summer. This entailed the acquisition of private land and re-routing of roads. In the face of strong opposition from local residents, SAC backed down, and acquiesced to 3,000-metre (10,000 ft) runways with 3,000-metre (10,000 ft) overruns, and B-47 operations would cease when it became too hot. As it was, only RAF Fairford and RAF Greenham Common had 3,000-metre (10,000 ft) runways, although RAF Bruntingthorpe and RAF Chelveston could be extended. RAF Brize Norton had a 3,000-metre (10,000 ft) runway but no overruns, RAF Upper Heyford was limited to 2,900 metres (9,600 ft) with no overruns, and RAF Sculthorpe, RAF Lakenheath and RAF Mildenhall could not be extended to more than 2,700-metre (9,000 ft).[61][62]
In 1953 the 7th Air Division began a system of B-47 Stratojet deployments to English bases. These temporary duty postings (TDY) generally involved an entire
The
When the
Reflex deployments
In 1958 TDY postings were replaced by a new system of overseas deployments called Reflex. A permanent SAC presence was established,
In July 1959,
Reconnaissance deployments
Besides B-47 bombers, English bases also played host to RB-47s, and EB-47s reconnaissance aircraft. During the 1950s and 1960s, aircraft became reliant on radars to track and intercept bombers. Penetrating these defences required knowledge of them, and
These units performed some of the most sensitive reconnaissance missions of the Cold War. On 1 July 1960, an RB-47H from RAF Brize Norton was
Cooperation with the RAF
Anglo-American nuclear cooperation soon grew beyond basing.
The RAF started to acquire its own nuclear weapons, and these were supplemented with US nuclear weapons acquired under
A conference codenamed "Encircle" was held in London from 15 to 17 August 1956 to discuss a joint plan. The British delegate was headed by the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff,
The Commander in Chief of RAF Bomber Command, Air Chief Marshal Sir
Thor missile deployments
During the 1950s, SAC pursued the development of an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) as a supplement to its bombers. Delays in the development of the ICBM, and political anxiety over the Soviet Union's deployment of IRBM systems, led the United States Secretary of Defense, Charles E. Wilson, to order the USAF to develop an IRBM as a stopgap or fallback. This resulted in the development of the Thor missile.[100] Implicit in the decision to develop an IRBM was that it would be based overseas, as its 2,800-kilometre; 1,700-mile (1,500 nmi) range was insufficient to reach targets in the Soviet Union or China from the US.[101] The UK appeared to be the best prospect, both politically and strategically.[100] The United States Secretary of the Air Force, Donald A. Quarles, officially raised the matter with the British Minister of Defence, Sir Walter Monckton, and his Chief Scientific Advisor, Sir Frederick Brundrett, in July 1956.[102] The October 1957 Sputnik crisis made the missile gap a hot political issue. Wilson's successor, Neil H. McElroy, ordered that Thor be rushed into production despite SAC's concerns about its vulnerability and impended obsolescence when ICBMs became available.[100]
The first Thor missile arrived at RAF Lakenheath on a C-124 Globemaster II on 29 August 1958, and was delivered to RAF Feltwell on 19 September. Fourteen were received by 23 December 1958.[103] The deployment involved the transport of 8,200 tonnes (18,000,000 lb) of equipment by sea, 10,000 to 11,000 tonnes (23,000,000 to 25,000,000 lb) by air in 600 flights by C-124 Globemaster IIs, and 77 by Douglas C-133 Cargomasters of the 1607th Air Transport Wing.[104] Thor was declared operational on 1 November 1959,[105] under an agreement that the USAF paid the cost of maintenance of the missiles for five years.[106] The 705th Strategic Missile Wing, which was activated at RAF Lakenheath on 20 February 1958, and moved to RAF South Ruislip on 15 March,[107] provided technical support to the RAF Thor squadrons.[108]
It was agreed that the missiles would be under British control, that target assignment would be a British responsibility in conjunction with the 7th Air Division,
The deployment of Jupiter IRBMs to Italy and Turkey in 1961 prompted the Soviet Union to respond by attempting to deploy IRBMs in Cuba.[114] In turn, their discovery by the United States led to the Cuban Missile Crisis. SAC was placed on DEFCON 3 on 22 October 1962, and DEFCON 2 on 24 October. RAF Bomber Command moved to Alert Condition 3, equivalent to DEFCON 3, on 27 October. Normally between 45 and 50 Thor missiles were ready to fire in 15 minutes. Without altering the alert condition, the number of missiles ready to fire in 15 minutes was increased to 59. The dual key system was thereby put under strain due to the RAF and USAF personnel being on different states of readiness.[115][116] The crisis passed, and SAC reverted to DEFCON 3 on 21 November and DEFCON 4 on 24 November.[115][116]
With ICBMs becoming available, SAC did not foresee the Thor missiles making a substantial contribution to the nuclear deterrent after 1965. On 1 May 1962, McNamara informed the British Minister of Defence, Harold Watkinson, that the US would not pay the maintenance support for Thor after 31 October 1964. Watkinson then informed him that the system would be phased out.[106] The last Thor missile departed the UK on 1 September 1963.[108]
Post Reflex era
B-1, B-52 and FB-111 deployments
It was never intended that the
During the later Cold War years, B-52s became regular visitors to the United Kingdom, turning up at bases such as RAF Greenham Common and also taking part in RAF Bomber competitions, but were deployed to NATO on an individual basis, not as groups or wings. In 1962 there were one or two visits each month.[117] Convair B-58 Hustlers also visited several times, the first occasion being a Hustler from the 305th Bombardment Wing on 16 October 1963. The last visit was a lone Hustler from the 43rd Bombardment Wing on 16 May 1969, not long before the last of the Hustlers was retired in January 1970. Two General Dynamics FB-111As visited RAF Marham in March and April 1971 for an RAF bombing competition, and two visited for a NATO exercise in July and August 1986. The following month a lone FB-111A paid a visit to RAF Fairford for the Royal International Air Tattoo. There were also some visits by SAC Rockwell B-1 Lancers in 1989, 1990 and 1991.[119]
Refuelling operations
In the wake of the
In response to the
When hostilities erupted between the United States and Libya in March 1986, President
The KC-10s were chosen as the primary refuelling agents for the mission as they had a larger fuel capacity than the KC-135s, but the short 2,700-metre (9,000 ft) runway at RAF Mildenhall did not permit them to take off fully loaded, so they were topped off by KC-135s en route. Three aerial refuellings were required on the outbound leg and two on the return one, but the F-111 crews had only recently deployed to the UK in January 1986, and were inexperienced in refuelling from KC-10s. To mitigate this, each F-111 was assigned a particular tanker for the entire mission, so the pilots could become familiar with their flying boom operator. When they returned to the tankers low on fuel after the raids, the F-111s latched onto the first tanker they saw, which caused some confusion, as one F-111 was lost. The KC-10 force remained in the UK for several days in case a follow-up strike was called for, but none was, and they eventually returned to the US.[124]
Desert Storm
After forty years of SAC bomber deployments in the UK, their first combat operations to be conducted from UK bases came in
Reconnaissance
RC-135 deployments
For many years various types of Boeing RC-135 reconnaissance aircraft were observed regularly arriving and departing from the RAF Mildenhall runway. Most of these aircraft had the capability to receive radar and radio signals from far behind the borders of the Communist Eastern Bloc. From Mildenhall the RC-135s flew ELINT and COMINT missions along the borders of Poland, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. The twenty or so specialists on board the RC-135s during such missions listened to and recorded military radio frequencies and communications. Following the retirement of the RB-47Hs, four ELINT missions were flown by a KC-135R Rivet Jaw (59–1465) from RAF Upper Heyford in May 1967. It crashed at Offurt Air Force base on 17 July, and it was replaced by a KC-135R Rivet Stand (55–3121), which flew missions from RAF Upper Heyford in 1968. This was upgraded to Rivet Jaw configuration, which was renamed Cobra Jaw in December 1969. It flew missions in September and November, but during the latter
U-2 deployments
SAC
A CIA U-2 from the 4th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron (CIA Detachment G) flew to RAF Upper Heyford to conduct missions over the Middle East in the lead up to the Six-Day War, but the British government refused permission, and asked for the aircraft to be withdrawn. CIA detachment G (now calling itself The 1130th Aerospace Technical Training Group) deployed to RAF Upper Heyford again in 1970 response to the War of Attrition. This time it had permission from the British government to fly from British-controlled Cyprus, but lacking permission to overfly France, it had to deploy via the Straits of Gibraltar. In all, thirty missions were flown from Cyprus.[127]
SAC U-2s flew High Altitude Sampling Program (HASP) missions from RAF Upper Heyford from August to October 1962 in response to Soviet nuclear tests. Between May and July 1975, SAC flew a series U-2 missions from the UK inside West Germany to evaluate the SAM defences in East Germany, choosing to fly from RAF Wethersfield so as not to disturb KC-135 and RC-135 operations from RAF Mildenhall. Although the mission was tactical in nature, it was flown by SAC because it operated the U-2s. The deployment was not a success, and one aircraft was lost.[127]
A SAC U-2 supported NATO exercises in 1976, and was successful enough for a more regular presence to be mooted. Between June and October 1977, 34 U-2 COMINT missions were flown. On 1 April 1979 Detachment 4 of the
Blackbird deployments
In 1969, the US government began negotiations to base the
After this public relations success, regular deployments of SR-71s and their KC-135Q tankers to RAF Mildenhall began with training deployments in April and September 1976. The first Peacetime Aerial Reconnaissance Program (PARPRO) mission was flown in January 1977.[130] Thereafter, deployments were a regular occurrence until April 1984, when the British government finally gave permission for SR-71s to be permanently based at RAF Mildenhall. It is estimated that 919 SR-71 sorties were flown from the UK, including damage assessment missions after the air raids on Libya in 1986. The last SR-71 sortie was flown from the UK on 18 January 1990. [131]
After the end of the Cold War in 1991, SAC was replaced by a new unified command, the United States Strategic Command on 1 June 1992,[132] but the end of SAC did not mean the end of the US military presence in the UK, although it steadily declined.[133] In 2015 it was announced that RAF Alconbury and RAF Molesworth would close by 2020,[134] and RAF Mildenhall was due to close in 2023, but this was deferred to 2027, and then postponed indefinitely in 2020.[135] RAF Lakenheath remained an important base. USAF Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning IIs began to be temporarily deployed there in 2017, and were expected to be based there permanently from 2021.[136]
See also
- United States Air Forces in Europe
- United States Air Force in the United Kingdom
Footnotes
Notes
- ^ Ruppenthal 1959, p. 288.
- ^ Mark 1999, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Young 2016, p. 11.
- ^ Ross 1988, pp. 4–7.
- ^ Young 2007, pp. 119–120.
- ^ Condit 1996, pp. 153–159.
- ^ a b c Hopkins 2019, p. 13.
- ^ a b Young 2016, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Young 2007, p. 121.
- ^ a b c Young 2016, pp. 18–21.
- ^ "The First B-29 in England". The Washington Times. No. 8. Winter 2005. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008.
- ^ "Project Ruby – a look at RAF Mildenhall's history > Royal Air Force Mildenhall > Article Display". United States Air Force. 30 December 2009. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 26–27.
- ^ Schnabel 1996, pp. 47–48.
- ^ Campbell 2005, p. 61.
- ^ Condit 1996, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Young 2016, p. 55.
- ^ Young 2016, p. 24.
- ^ Moody 1995, p. 206.
- ^ a b Gunderson 2007, p. 40.
- ^ Moody 1995, pp. 207–208.
- ^ Duke 1985, p. 56.
- ^ Duke 1987, p. 34.
- ^ Campbell 2005, p. 23.
- ^ a b Hopkins 2019, p. 35.
- ^ Young 2007, pp. 124–125.
- ^ a b Duke 1987, p. 47.
- ^ Young 2016, p. 39.
- ^ Young 2007, pp. 124–126.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 63–65.
- ^ a b Hopkins 2019, pp. 15–16.
- ^ a b Young 2016, pp. 65–70.
- ^ a b Hopkins 2019, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Knaack 1988, pp. 163–164, 169.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Condit 1996, pp. 279–281.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 35–39.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 47–53, 57.
- ^ a b c d "Factsheets : 7 Air Division". Air Force Historical Research Agency. Archived from the original on 30 October 2012.
- ^ a b Young 2016, pp. 106–109.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, p. 16.
- ^ "Third Air Force (USAFE)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. Retrieved 5 May 2020.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 58, 114–115.
- ^ Duke 1985, p. 178.
- ^ Duke 1985, p. 120.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 115–116.
- ^ a b Knaack 1988, pp. 490–492.
- ^ a b Hopkins 2019, pp. 92–93, 96.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, p. 46.
- ^ Knaack 1988, pp. 3–4, 8–12.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, p. 42.
- ^ "Bomber flew 30 miles without a crew". The Wiltshire Gazette and Herald. 6 February 2003. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 43–45.
- ^ a b Knaack 1988, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Knaack 1988, p. 490.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, p. 47.
- ^ Boyne 2013, p. 79.
- ^ Boyne 2013, p. 81.
- ^ a b c Hopkins 2019, pp. 54–55.
- ^ a b c Hopkins 2019, p. 201.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 70–71.
- ^ Boyne 2013, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Knaack 1988, p. 118.
- ^ Knaack 1988, p. 109.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 48–51.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 51–52.
- ^ a b c Young 2016, p. 94.
- ^ Fletcher 1989, p. 115.
- ^ Fletcher 1989, p. 121.
- ^ Willard 1988, p. 50.
- ^ Willard 1988, p. 9.
- ^ Fletcher 1989, p. 127.
- ^ Willard 1988, p. 16.
- ^ Willard 1988, p. 40.
- ^ Willard 1988, p. 35.
- ^ Willard 1988, p. 38.
- ^ Fletcher 1989, p. 131.
- ^ Fletcher 1989, p. 111.
- ^ Willard 1988, pp. 8–9.
- ^ "RAF Brize North 80th Anniversary Souvenir Magazine". -Royal Air Force. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, p. 59.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 54, 61.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, p. 202.
- ^ a b Hopkins 2019, pp. 64–66.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, p. 61.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 128–131.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 133–134.
- ^ "RB-47H Shot Down". National Museum of the United States Air Force. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
- ^ a b Hopkins 2019, pp. 137–138.
- ^ Young 2016, p. 247.
- ^ Condit 1996, pp. 156–159.
- ^ Condit 1996, pp. 159–162.
- ^ Young 2016, p. 249.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 249–251.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 252–256.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 259–260.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 261–263.
- ^ a b c Young 2016, pp. 95–97.
- ^ Clark & Angell 1991, pp. 158–159.
- ^ Boyes 2015, pp. 38–39.
- ^ Wynn 1997, pp. 340–342.
- ^ Owen, Kenneth (23 March 1960). "Thor Logistics". Flight. pp. 398–399. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, p. 193.
- ^ a b Wynn 1997, pp. 358–360.
- ^ Ravenstein 1984, p. 293.
- ^ a b c Hopkins 2019, pp. 193–195.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 98–99.
- ^ Boyes 2015, p. 55.
- ^ Clark & Angell 1991, pp. 161–162.
- ^ Moore 2010, p. 99.
- ^ Young 2016, pp. 100–101.
- Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
- ^ a b Young 2016, pp. 265–269.
- ^ a b Wynn 1997, pp. 347–348.
- ^ a b Hopkins 2019, pp. 68–69.
- ^ Brean, Herbert; Blair, Clay Jr. (23 January 1957). "B-52s Shrink a World". Life. Vol. 42, no. 4. pp. 21–27.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 73–76.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 106–107.
- ^ "History". Greenham Common Control Tower. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ^ "11 Wing (USAF)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 111–112.
- ^ a b Hopkins 2019, pp. 112–116.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 87–90.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 137–143.
- ^ a b c Hopkins 2019, pp. 145–148.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 151–152.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 156–157.
- ^ a b Hopkins 2019, pp. 161–162.
- ^ Hopkins 2019, pp. 167–170.
- ^ Feickert, Andrew (3 January 2013). The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands: Background and Issues for Congress (PDF) (Report). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ^ Milmo, Cahal (24 January 2016). "Unknown territory: America's secret archipelago of UK bases". The Independent. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
- ^ "USAF to Pull Out of Airbases at Mildenhall, Alconbury and Molesworth". BBC News. 8 January 2015. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
- ^ "RAF Mildenhall: Reprieve for US air base destined to close". BBC News. 31 July 2020. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
- ^ Insinna, Valerie (6 August 2020). "UK facilities for American F-35 jets are delayed and over budget". Defense News. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
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- Condit, Kenneth W. (1996). The Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy, Volume II: 1947-1949 (PDF). History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Washington, DC: Office of Joint History Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. OCLC 4651413. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
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- Willard, Richard R. (1988) [1968]. Location of United States Military Units in the United Kingdom, 16 July 1948-31 December 1967. USAF Air Station, South Ruislip, United Kingdom: Historical Division, Office of Information, Third Air Force. LCCN 68061579.
- Wynn, Humphrey (1997). RAF Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Forces, Their Origins, Roles and Deployment, 1946–1969: A Documentary History. London: The Stationery Office. OCLC 39225127.
- Young, Ken (January 2007). "US 'Atomic Capability' and the British Forward Bases in the Early Cold War". Journal of Contemporary History. 42 (1): 117–136. S2CID 159815831.
- Young, Ken (2016). The American Bomb in Britain: US Air Forces' Strategic Presence 1946–64. Manchester: Manchester University Press. OCLC 942707047.
Further reading
- Lloyd, Alwyn T. (2000), A Cold War Legacy, A Tribute to Strategic Air Command, 1946–1992, Pictorial Histories Pub ISBN 1-57510-052-5
- Robinson, Robert (1990), USAF Europe in Color, Volume 2, 1947–1963, Squadron/Signal Publications ISBN 0-89747-250-0
- Rodrigues, Rick (2006), Aircraft Markings of the Strategic Air Command 1946–1953, McFarland & Company ISBN 0-7864-2496-6
- Steijger, Cees (1991), A History of USAFE, Airlife Publishing Limited, ISBN 1-85310-075-7