Strategos

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Bust of Pericles, statesman and general during the Golden Age of Athens; Hadrianic Roman copy of a Greek sculpture of c. 400 BC

Strategos, plural strategoi,

Hellenistic world and the Eastern Roman Empire the term was also used to describe a military governor. In the modern Hellenic Army
, it is the highest officer rank.

Etymology

Strategos is a compound of two Greek words: stratos and agos. Stratos (στρατός) means "army",[1] literally "that which is spread out",[2] coming from the proto-Indo-European root *stere- "to spread".[3] Agos (ἀγός)[4] means "leader", from agein (ἄγειν) "to lead",[5] from the pelasgic root *ag- "to drive, draw out or forth, move".[6]

Classical Greece

Athens

In its most famous attestation, in

polemarchos, who had hitherto been the senior military commander.[7] At the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC (according to Herodotus) they decided strategy by majority vote, and each held the presidency in daily rotation. At this date the polemarchos had a casting vote, and one view among modern scholars is that he was the commander-in-chief; but from 486 onwards the polemarchos, like the other archontes
, was appointed by lot. The annual election of the strategoi was held in the spring, and their term of office coincided with the ordinary Athenian year, from midsummer to midsummer. If a strategos died or was dismissed from office, a by-election might be held to replace him.

The strict adherence to the principle of a strategos from each tribe lasted until c. 440 BC, after which two strategoi could be selected from the same tribe and another tribe be left without its own strategos, perhaps because no suitable candidate might be available.[7] This system continued at least until c. 356/7 BC, but by the time Aristotle wrote his Constitution of the Athenians in c. 330 BC, the appointments were made without any reference to tribal affiliation. Hence, during the Hellenistic period, although the number of the tribes was increased, the number of strategoi remained constant at ten.[7]

In the early part of the 5th century, several strategoi combined their military office with a political role, with

Roman Imperial period, the strategos epi ta hopla (στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα) became the most prominent magistrate in Athens.[7]
The other generals had disappeared by the end of the first century BC.

The Athenian people kept a close eye on their strategoi. Like other magistrates, at the end of their term of office they were subject to

prytany on the question whether they were performing their duties well. If the vote went against anyone, he was deposed and as a rule tried by jury. Pericles himself in 430 was removed from office as strategos and fined, and in 406 six of the eight strategoi who commanded the fleet at the Battle of Arginusae
were all removed from office and condemned to death.

Other Greek states

The title of strategos appears for a number of other Greek states in the Classical period, but it is often unclear whether this refers to an actual office, or is used as a generic term for military commander.[7] The strategos as an office is attested at least for Syracuse from the late 5th century BC, Erythrae, and in the koinon of the Arcadians in the 360s BC.[7]

The title of

strategos autokrator was also used for generals with broad powers, but the extent and nature of these powers was granted on an ad hoc basis.[7] Thus Philip II of Macedon was elected as strategos autokrator (commander-in-chief with full powers) of the League of Corinth
.

Hellenistic and Roman use

Under Philip II of Macedon, the title of strategos was used for commanders on detached assignments as the quasi-representatives of the king, often with a title indicating their area of responsibility, e.g. strategos tes Europes ('general of Europe').[8]

In several Greek city leagues the title strategos was reserved for the head of state. In the

eponymous chief of civil government and the supreme military commander at the same time. Two of the most prominent leaders re-elected many times to the office in the Achaean League, were Aratus of Sicyon and Philopoemen of Megalopolis. Strategoi are also reported in the Arcadian League, in the Epirote League and in the Acarnanian League, whereas the leaders of the Boeotian League and the Thessalian League had different titles, Boeotarch and Tagus
respectively.

In the

klerouchoi) established in the country. Quickly, they assumed a role in the administration alongside the nomarches, the governor of each of the country's nomes, and the oikonomos, in charge of fiscal affairs. Already by the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 283–246 BC), the strategos was the head of the provincial administration, while conversely his military role declined, as the klerouchoi were progressively demilitarized.[8] Ptolemy V Epiphanes (r. 204–181 BC) established the office of epistrategos (ἐπιστράτηγος, lit.'over-general') to oversee the individual strategoi. The latter had become solely civilian officials, combining the role of the nomarches and the oikonomos, while the epistrategos retained powers of military command. In addition, hypostrategoi (sing. hypostrategos, ὐποστράτηγος, 'under-general') could be appointed as subordinates.[8] The Ptolemaic administrative system survived into the Roman period, where the epistrategos was subdivided in three to four smaller offices, and the procurator ad epistrategiam was placed in charge of the strategoi. The office largely retained its Ptolemaic functions and continued to be staffed by the Greek population of the country.[8]

The Odrysian kingdom of Thrace was also divided into strategiai ('generalships'), each headed by a strategos, based on the various Thracian tribes and subtribes. At the time of the kingdom's annexation into the Roman Empire in 46 AD, there were 50 such districts, which were initially retained in the new Roman province, and only gradually fell out of use. It was not until c. 136 that the last of them were abolished.

Under the

propraetor
.

Byzantine use

The term continued in use in the Greek-speaking

Theme system, their role changed: as the field armies were resettled and became the basis for the territorial themes, their generals too assumed new responsibilities, combining their military duties with the civil governance of the theme.[10] The first themes were few and very large, and in the 8th century, the provincial strategoi were in constant antagonism with the emperor at Constantinople, rising often in rebellion against him. In response, the themes were progressively split up and the number of strategoi increased, diluting their power. This process was furthered by the conquests of the 10th century, which saw the establishment of several new and smaller frontier themes: while in c. 842 the Taktikon Uspensky lists 18 strategoi, the Escorial Taktikon, written c. 971–975, lists almost 90.[10]

Throughout the middle Byzantine period (7th–12th centuries), the strategos of the

eunuchs were specifically barred. At the same time, the Eastern (Anatolian) themes were senior to the Western (European) ones. This distinction was especially marked in the pay of their presiding strategoi: while those of the Eastern themes received their salary directly from the state treasury, their counterparts in the West had to raise their—markedly lower—pay from the proceeds of their provinces.[11] During the 11th century, the strategoi were gradually confined to their military duties, their fiscal and administrative responsibilities being taken over by the civil kritai ("judges"). Senior military leadership also devolved on the hands of a new class of officers titled doukes or katepano, who were placed in control of regional commands combining several themes. By the 13th century, the term strategos had reverted to the generic sense of "general", devoid of any specific technical meaning.[10]

The Byzantines also used a number of variations of the title strategos: strategetes (στρατηγέτης, "army leader") was an infrequently used alternative term; the term monostrategos (μονοστράτηγος, "single-general") designated a general placed in command over other strategoi or over the forces of more than one theme; the terms strategos autokrator, archistrategos (ἀρχιστράτηγος, "chief-general") and protostrategos (πρωτοστράτηγος, "first-general") designated commanders vested with supreme authority; and the term hypostrategos (ὐποστράτηγος, "under-general") denoted a second-in-command, effectively a lieutenant general.[10]

In Messina

The city of Messina in Sicily also had a Strategos. In 1345 Orlando d'Aragona, illegitimate son of Frederick II of Sicily, held that position.

Modern use

In the modern

General Staff of National Defence, when he is an Army officer, and is granted to the retiring Chief of the Hellenic Army General Staff
.

All but one of the other Greek general officer ranks are derivations of this word: antistrátigos and ypostrátigos, for

, which lack the grade of full stratigós.

 
Cypriot Ground Forces[12]

(1964–today)
Αντιστράτηγος
Antistrátigos
Υποστράτηγος
Ypostrátigos
 Hellenic Army[13]
(1975–today)
Στρατηγός
Stratigos
Αντιστράτηγος
Antistratigos
Υποστράτηγος
Ypostratigos
 Hellenic Army
(1909–1937)
Στρατηγός
Stratigos
Αντιστράτηγος
Antistratigos
Υποστράτηγος
Ypostratigos
Hellenic Police
(1984–today)
Αντιστράτηγος
Antistratigos
Υποστράτηγος
Ypostratigos
Hellenic Fire Service
Αντιστράτηγος
Antistratigos
Υποστράτηγος
Ypostratigos
commissioned officer ranks
NATO code: OF-1 OF-2 OF-3 OF-4 OF-5 OF-6 OF-7 OF-8 OF-9
Navy: Simaioforos & Anthypoploiarchos Ypoploiarchos Plotarchis Antiploiarchos Ploiarchos Archiploiarchos Yponavarchos Antinavarchos Navarchos
Army: Anthypolochagos & Ypolochagos
Ypilarchos & Anthypilarchos (Armoured)
Lochagos
Ilarchos (Armoured)
Tagmatarchis
Antisyntagmatarchis
Syntagmatarchis Taxiarchos Ypostratigos Antistratigos Stratigos
Air Force: Anthyposminagos & Yposminagos Sminagos Episminagos Antisminarchos Sminarchos Taxiarchos Aeroporias Ypopterarchos
Antipterarchos
Pterarchos


Fictional uses

The oldest use of the term strategos in fiction may be found in the Callirhoe of Chariton of Aphrodisias which is dated in the first century A.D. There, Hermocrates is the "strategos" of Syracuse and the father of Callirhoe, living in the 5th century B.C. In fact, he was a historical person, the victor over the Athenians in 413 B.C., an event which stopped Athenian expansion to the West. His role as a character in the novel is rather limited. Although his position in Syracuse gives Callirhoe a background, and he gives consent to her marriage and fulfills a few official duties, his legal or constitutional position is not very clear.

This position was featured in

Peter Wiggin after he assumed the role of Hegemon. The prequel novel Earth Awakens
establishes that the position of Strategos was named after the Strategoi, a group of international military commanders in charge of the Mobile Operations Police, which served as the model for the newly created International Fleet. The first Strategos was Lieutenant Colonel Yulian Robinov of the Russian Ministry of Defense, who served as the chair of the Strategoi during the First Invasion.

The dystopian slave-empire of the

Classical Antiquity
, though often with only the loosest resemblance to what they originally meant.

The position of 'Strategos' was also featured in the English version of the

; the character Folken occupied the position when he served the Zaibach empire.

It is also used in the webcomic Ava's Demon for Strategos Six.

The term is also used in the 2018 Ubisoft video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey. There is no Athenian variant of them, as they are exclusively Spartan. They are powerful units found in forts and camps, second in power only to that of the Polemarch. They wield heavy blades and shield.

In Xenoblade Chronicles 3, Strategos is the name of an optional character class, given by the character Isurd.

The main protagonist in David Gemmell's Lion of Macedon and Dark Prince, is a half-Spartan, half-Macedonian Strategos, called Parmenion. The real life Parmenion was indeed a Strategos in Ancient Greece.

See also

Footnotes

Citations

  1. Perseus Project
    .
  2. ^ Harper, Douglas. "strategy". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  3. ^ Harper, Douglas. "*stere-". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  4. ^ ἀγός in Liddell and Scott.
  5. ^ ἄγειν in Liddell and Scott.
  6. ^ Harper, Douglas. "*ag-". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Rhodes, Peter J. (2015). "Strategos I. Classical Greece". Brill's New Pauly. Brill Online. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  8. ^ a b c d e Ameling, Walther (2015). "Strategos II. Hellenistic states". Brill's New Pauly. Brill Online. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  9. ^ 1881 Westcott-Hort New Testament, ΠΡΑΞΕΙΣ ΤΩΝ ΑΠΟΣΤΟΛΩΝ 16:20 ...καὶ προσαγαγόντες αὐτοὺς τοῖς στρατηγοῖς εἶπαν...
  10. ^ .
  11. ^ Bury, John B. (1911), The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century – With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos, Oxford University Publishing, pp. 39–41
  12. ^ "Βαθμοί" [Ranks]. army.gov.cy (in Greek). Cypriot National Guard. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
  13. ^ "Επωμίδες Φ/Π Στολών" [Shoulders for PV Uniforms]. army.gr (in Greek). Hellenic Army. Retrieved 26 May 2021.

General sources

External links