August Strindberg
August Strindberg | |
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Born | Johan August Strindberg 22 January 1849 Stockholm, United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway |
Died | 14 May 1912 Stockholm, Sweden | (aged 63)
Resting place | Norra begravningsplatsen |
Occupation |
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Nationality | Swedish |
Period | Modernism |
Literary movement | |
Notable works |
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Spouse |
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Children | 7, including Friedrich Strindberg and Karin Smirnov |
Signature | |
Johan August Strindberg (
The Royal Theatre rejected his first major play, Master Olof, in 1872; it was not until 1881, when he was thirty-two, that its première at the New Theatre gave him his theatrical breakthrough.[2][11] In his plays The Father (1887), Miss Julie (1888), and Creditors (1889), he created naturalistic dramas that – building on the established accomplishments of Henrik Ibsen's prose problem plays while rejecting their use of the structure of the well-made play – responded to the call-to-arms of Émile Zola's manifesto "Naturalism in the Theatre" (1881) and the example set by André Antoine's newly established Théâtre Libre (opened 1887).[12] In Miss Julie, characterisation replaces plot as the predominant dramatic element (in contrast to melodrama and the well-made play) and the determining role of heredity and the environment on the "vacillating, disintegrated" characters is emphasized.[13] Strindberg modeled his short-lived Scandinavian Experimental Theatre (1889) in Copenhagen on Antoine's theatre and he explored the theory of Naturalism in his essays "On Psychic Murder" (1887), "On Modern Drama and the Modern Theatre" (1889), and a preface to Miss Julie, the last of which is probably the best-known statement of the principles of the theatrical movement.[14]
During the 1890s he spent significant time abroad engaged in scientific experiments and studies of the occult.
Biography
Youth
Strindberg was born on 22 January 1849 in Stockholm, Sweden, the third surviving son of Carl Oscar Strindberg (a shipping agent) and Eleonora Ulrika Norling (a serving-maid).[21] In his autobiographical novel The Son of a Servant, Strindberg describes a childhood affected by "emotional insecurity, poverty, religious fanaticism and neglect".[22] When he was seven, the family moved to Norrtullsgatan on the northern, almost-rural periphery of the city.[23] A year later they moved near to Sabbatsberg, where they stayed for three years before returning to Norrtullsgatan.[24][25] He attended a harsh school in Klara for four years, an experience that haunted him in his adult life.[26] He was moved to the school in Jakob in 1860, which he found far more pleasant, though he remained there for only a year.[27] In the autumn of 1861, he was moved to the Stockholm Lyceum, a progressive private school for middle-class boys, where he remained for six years.[28] As a child he had a keen interest in natural science, photography, and religion (following his mother's Pietism).[29] His mother, Strindberg recalled later with bitterness, always resented her son's intelligence.[28] She died when he was thirteen, and although his grief lasted for only three months, in later life he came to feel a sense of loss and longing for an idealized maternal figure.[30] Less than a year after her death, his father married the children's governess, Emilia Charlotta Pettersson.[31] According to his sisters, Strindberg came to regard them as his worst enemies.[30] He passed his graduation examination in May 1867 and enrolled at the Uppsala University, where he began on 13 September.[32]
Strindberg spent the next few years in
1870s
Strindberg returned to
Taking his cue from
Strindberg embarked on his career as a journalist and critic for newspapers in Stockholm.
Early in the summer of 1875, he met
I am a socialist, a nihilist, a republican, anything that is anti-reactionary!... I want to turn everything upside down to see what lies beneath; I believe we are so webbed, so horribly regimented, that no spring-cleaning is possible, everything must be burned, blown to bits, and then we can start afresh...[79]
1880s
Strindberg and Siri's daughter Karin was born on 26 February 1880.
Having returned to Kymmendö during the summer of 1882, Strindberg wrote a collection of anti-establishment short stories, The New Kingdom.[91] While there, to provide a lead role for his wife and as a reply to Henrik Ibsen's A Doll's House (1879), he also wrote Sir Bengt's Wife, which opened on 25 November 1882 at the New Theatre.[92] He moved to Grez-sur-Loing, just south of Paris, France, where Larsson was staying. He then moved to Paris, which they found noisy and polluted. Income earned from Lucky Peter's Journey enabled him to move to Switzerland in 1883. He resided in Ouchy, where he stayed for some years. On 3 April 1884, Siri gave birth to their son, Hans.[93]
In 1884 Strindberg wrote a collection of short stories,
In 1885, they moved back to Paris.[
Another change in his life after the trial is that Strindberg decided he wanted a scientific life instead of a literary one, and began to write about non-literary subjects. When he was 37, he began The Son of a Servant, a four-part autobiography. The first part ends in 1867, the year he left home for Uppsala. Part two describes his youth up to 1872. Part three, or The Red Room, describes his years as a poet and journalist; it ends with his meeting Siri von Essen. Part four, which dealt with the years from 1877 to 1886, was banned by his publishers and was not published until after his death. The three missing years, 1875–1877, were the time when Strindberg was wooing von Essen and their marriage; entitled He and She, this portion of his autobiography was not printed until 1919, after his death. It contains the love letters between the two during that period.
In the later half of the 1880s Strindberg discovered
Before writing Creditors, Strindberg completed one of his most famous pieces, Miss Julie. He wrote the play with a Parisian stage in mind, in particular the Théâtre Libre, founded in 1887 by André Antoine. In the play he used Charles Darwin's theory of survival of the fittest and dramatized a doomed sexual encounter that crosses the division of social classes. It is believed that this play was inspired by the marriage of Strindberg, the son of a servant, to an aristocratic woman.
In the essay On Psychic Murder (1887), he referred to the psychological theories of the Nancy School, which advocated the use of hypnosis. Strindberg developed a theory that sexual warfare was not motivated by carnal desire but by relentless human will. The winner was the one who had the strongest and most unscrupulous mind, someone who, like a hypnotist, could coerce a more impressionable psyche into submission. His view on psychological power struggles may be seen in works such as Creditors (1889), The Stronger (1889), and Pariah (1889).
In 1888, after a separation and reconciliation with Siri von Essen, he founded the Scandinavian Experimental Theatre in Copenhagen, where Siri became manager. He asked writers to send him scripts, which he received from Herman Bang, Gustav Wied and Nathalia Larsen. Less than a year later, with the theatre and reconciliation short lived, he moved back to Sweden while Siri moved back to her native Finland with the children. While there, he rode out the final phase of the divorce and later used this agonizing ordeal for the basis of The Bond and the Link (1893). Strindberg also became interested in short drama, called Quart d'heure. He was inspired by writers such as Gustave Guiche and Henri de Lavedan. His notable contribution was The Stronger (1889). As a result of the failure of the Scandinavian Experimental Theatre, Strindberg did not work as a playwright for three years. In 1889, he published an essay entitled "On Modern Drama and the Modern Theatre", in which he disassociated himself from naturalism, arguing that it was petty and unimaginative realism. His sympathy for Nietzsche's philosophy and atheism in general was also on the wane. He entered the period of his "Inferno crisis", in which he had psychological and religious upheavals that influenced his later works.
August Strindberg's Inferno is his personal account of sinking deeper into some kind of madness, typified by visions and paranoia. In Strindberg och alkoholen (1985), James Spens discusses Strindberg's drinking habits, including his liking for absinthe and its possible implications for Strindberg's mental health during the inferno period.
1890s
On midsummer's day, 1891, while staying with Siri and her close friend, the Danish woman Marie Caroline David, on the island Runmarö, in the Stockholm Archipelago, Strindberg suspected von Essen was having a long-term affair with David, and he violently assaulted her, precipitating the end of the marriage. [105]
After his disenchantment with naturalism, Strindberg had a growing interest in transcendental matters. Symbolism was just beginning at this time. Verner von Heidenstam and Ola Hanson had dismissed naturalism as "shoemaker realism" that rendered human experience in simplistic terms. This is believed to have stalled Strindberg's creativity, and Strindberg insisted that he was in a rivalry and forced to defend naturalism, even though he had exhausted its literary potential. These works include: Debit and Credit (1892), Facing Death (1892), Motherly Love (1892), and The First Warning (1893). His play The Keys of Heaven (1892) was inspired by the loss of his children in his divorce. He also completed one of his few comedies, Playing with Fire (1893), and the first two parts of his post-inferno trilogy To Damascus (1898–1904).
In 1892, he experienced writer's block, which led to a drastic reduction in his income. Depression followed as he was unable to meet his financial obligations and to support his children and former wife. A fund was set up through an appeal in a German magazine. This money allowed him to leave Sweden and he joined artistic circles in Berlin. Otto Brahm's Freie Bühne theatre premiered some of his famous works in Germany, including The Father, Miss Julie, and Creditors.
Similar to twenty years earlier when he frequented The Red Room, he now went to the German tavern The Black Porker. Here he met a diverse group of artists from Scandinavia, Poland, and Germany. His attention turned to Frida Uhl, who was twenty-three years younger than Strindberg. They were married in 1893. Less than a year later, their daughter Kerstin was born and the couple separated, though their marriage was not officially dissolved until 1897. Frida's family, in particular her mother, who was a devout Catholic, had an important influence on Strindberg, and in an 1894 letter he declared "I feel the hand of our Lord resting over me."
Some critics think that Strindberg suffered from severe paranoia in the mid-1890s, and perhaps that he temporarily experienced insanity. Others, including Evert Sprinchorn and Olof Lagercrantz, believed that he intentionally turned himself into his own guinea pig by doing psychological and drug-induced self-experimentation. He wrote on subjects such as botany, chemistry, and optics before returning to literature with the publication of Inferno (1897), a (half fictionalized) account of his "wilderness years" in Austria and Paris, then a collection of short stories, Legends, and a semi-dramatic novella, Jacob Wrestling (both printed in the same book 1898). Both volumes aroused curiosity and controversy, not least due to the religious element; earlier, Strindberg had been known to be indifferent or hostile to religion and especially priests, but now he had undergone some sort of conversion to a personal faith. In a postscript, he noted the impact of Emanuel Swedenborg on his current work.
"The Powers" were central to Strindberg's later work. He said that "the Powers" were an outside force that had caused him his physical and mental suffering because they were acting in retribution to humankind for their wrongdoings. As
Strindberg had spent the tail end of 1896 and most of 1897 in the university town of Lund in southern Sweden, a sojourn during which he made a number of new friendships, felt his mental stability and health improving and also firmly returned to literary writing; Inferno, Legends and Jacob Wrestling were written there. In 1899, he returned permanently to Stockholm, following a successful production there of Master Olof in 1897 (which was re-staged in 1899 to mark Strindberg's fiftieth birthday). He had the desire to become recognized as a leadíng figure in Swedish literature, and to put earlier controversies behind him, and felt that historical dramas were the way to attain that status. Though Strindberg claimed that he was writing "realistically", he freely altered past events and biographical information, and telescoped chronology (as often done in most historical fiction): more importantly, he felt a flow of resurgent inspiration, writing almost twenty new plays (many in a historical setting) between 1898 and 1902. His new works included the so-called Vasa Trilogy: The Saga of the Folkungs (1899), Gustavus Vasa (1899), and Erik XIV (1899) and A Dream Play (written in 1901, first performed in 1907).
1900s
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2017) |
Strindberg was pivotal in the creation of chamber plays. Max Reinhardt was a big supporter of his, staging some of his plays at the Kleines Theatre in 1902 (including The Bond, The Stronger, and The Outlaw). Once Otto Brahm relinquished his role as head as of the Deutsches Theatre, Reinhardt took over and produced Strindberg's plays.
In 1903, Strindberg planned to write a grand cycle of plays based on world history, but the idea soon faded. He had completed short plays about
His other works, such as Days of Loneliness (1903), The Roofing Ceremony (1907), and The Scapegoat (1907), and the novels The Gothic Rooms (1904) and Black Banners Genre Scenes from the Turn of the Century,[106] (1907) have been viewed as precursors to Marcel Proust and Franz Kafka.
August Falck, an actor, wanted to put on a production of Miss Julie and wrote to Strindberg for permission. In September 1906 he staged the first Swedish production of Miss Julie. August Falck, played Jean and Manda Bjorling played Julie.
In 1909, Strindberg thought he might get the
In 1907, Strindberg co-founded
Death and funeral
Strindberg died shortly after the first staging of one of his plays in the
During Christmas 1911, Strindberg became sick with pneumonia and he never recovered completely. He also began to suffer more clearly from a stomach cancer (early signs of which had been felt in 1908). The final weeks of his life were painful. He had long since become a national celebrity, even if highly controversial, and when it became clear that he was seriously ill the daily papers in Stockholm began reporting on his health in every edition. He received many letters and telegrams from admirers across the country.[109] He died on 14 May 1912 at the age of 63.[110]
Strindberg was interred at Norra begravningsplatsen in Stockholm. He had given strict instructions concerning his funeral and how his body should be treated after death: only members of his immediate family were allowed to view his body, there would be no autopsy, no photographs were taken, and no death mask was made. Strindberg had also requested that his funeral should take place as soon as possible after his death to avoid crowds of onlookers. However, the workers' organisations requested that the funeral should take place on a Sunday to make it possible for working men to pay their respects, and the funeral was postponed for five days, until Sunday, 19 May. According to Strindberg's last wish, the funeral procession was to start at 8am, again to avoid crowds, but large groups of people were nevertheless waiting outside his home as well as at the cemetery, as early as 7am. A short service was conducted by Nathan Söderblom by the bier in Strindberg's home, in the presence of three of Strindberg's children and his housekeeper, after which the coffin was taken outside for the funeral procession. The procession was followed by groups of students, workers, members of Parliament and a couple of cabinet ministers, and it was estimated that up to 60,000 people lined the streets. King Gustaf V sent a wreath for the bier.[109][111]
Legacy
Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee, Maxim Gorky, John Osborne, and Ingmar Bergman are among the many artists who have cited Strindberg as an influence.[112] Eugene O'Neill, upon receiving the Nobel Prize in Literature, dedicated much of his acceptance speech to describing Strindberg's influence on his work, and referred to him as "that greatest genius of all modern dramatists."[113] Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges said of Strindberg: "[he] was, for a time, my god, alongside Nietzsche".[114]
A multi-faceted author, Strindberg was often extreme. His novel
Strindberg wanted to attain what he called "greater Naturalism". He disliked the expository character backgrounds that characterise the work of Henrik Ibsen and rejected the convention of a dramatic "slice of life" because he felt that the resulting plays were mundane and uninteresting. Strindberg felt that true naturalism was a psychological "battle of brains": two people who hate each other in the immediate moment and strive to drive the other to doom is the type of mental hostility that Strindberg strove to describe. He intended his plays to be impartial and objective, citing a desire to make literature akin to a science.
Following the inner turmoil that he experienced during the "Inferno crisis", he wrote an important book in French, Inferno (1896–7), in which he dramatised his experiences. He also exchanged a few cryptic letters with Friedrich Nietzsche.[115]
Strindberg subsequently ended his association with Naturalism and began to produce works informed by
His most famous and produced plays are
Internationally, Strindberg is chiefly remembered as a playwright, but in his native Sweden his name is associated no less with novels and other writings. Röda rummet (The Red Room), Hemsöborna (The People of Hemsö), Giftas (Getting Married), En dåres försvarstal (The Confession of a Fool), and Inferno remain among his most celebrated novels, representing different genres and styles. He is often, though not universally, viewed as Sweden's greatest author, and taught in schools as a key figure of Swedish culture. The most important contemporary literary award in Sweden,
The Swedish composer Ture Rangström dedicated his first Symphony, which was finished in 1914, to August Strindberg in memoriam.
Social criticism
An acerbic
Strindberg's opinions were typically stated with great force and vitriol, and sometimes humorously over-stated. He was involved in a variety of crises and feuds, skirmishing regularly with the literary and cultural establishment of his day, including erstwhile allies and friends. His youthful reputation as a genial enfant terrible of Swedish literature, transformed, eventually, into the role of a sort of ill-tempered towering giant of Swedish public life.
Strindberg was a prolific letter-writer, whose private communications have been collected in several annotated volumes. He often voiced political views privately to friends and literary acquaintances, phrased in a no-holds-barred jargon of scathing attacks, drastic humor, and flippant hyperbole. Many of his most controversial political statements are drawn from this private correspondence.
Influenced by the history of the 1871
He read widely among progressive thinkers, including Cabet, Fourier, Babeuf, Saint-Simon, Proudhon, and Owen, whom he referred to as "friends of humanity and sharp thinkers."[119] "Strindberg adopted ideas from everyone," writes Jan Olsson, who notes that Strindberg lived in a period where "terms like anarchism, socialism, and communism were alternately used as synonyms and as different terms."[119]
By the early 1880s, many young political and literary radicals in Sweden had come to view Strindberg as a champion of their causes. However, in contrast to the
Although he had been an early proponent of women's rights, calling for women's suffrage in 1884, Strindberg later became disenchanted with what he viewed as an unnatural equation of the sexes. In times of personal conflict and marital trouble (which was much of the time), he could lash out with crudely misogynistic statements. His troubled marriage with Siri von Essen, ended in an upsetting divorce in 1891, became the inspiration for The Defence of a Fool, begun in 1887 and published in 1893. Strindberg famously sought to insert a warning to lawmakers against "granting citizens' rights to half-apes, lower beings, sick children, [who are] sick and crazed thirteen times a year during their periods, completely insane while pregnant, and irresponsible throughout the rest of their lives." The paragraph was ultimately removed before printing by his publisher.[121]
Strindberg's misogyny was at odds with the younger generation of socialist activists and has drawn attention in contemporary[
A self-declared atheist in his younger years, Strindberg would also re-embrace
In Inferno, Strindberg notes his ideological and spiritual evolution:
What is the purpose of having toiled through thirty years only to gain, through experience, that which I had already understood as a concept? In my youth, I was a sincere believer, and you [i.e. the powers that be] have made me a free-thinker. Out of a free-thinker you have made me an atheist; out of an atheist, a religious believer. Inspired by humanitarian ideas, I have praised socialism. Five years later, you have proven to me the unreasonableness of socialism. Everything that once enthralled me you have invalidated! And presuming that I will now abandon myself to religion, I am certain that you will, in ten years, disprove religion. (Strindberg, Inferno, Chapter XV.)
Despite his reactionary attitudes on issues such as women's rights and his conservative, mystical turn from the early 1890s, Strindberg remained popular with some in the socialist-liberal camp on the strength of his past radicalism and his continued salience as a literary modernizer. However, several former admirers were disappointed and troubled by what they viewed as Strindberg's descent into religious conservatism and, perhaps, madness. His former ally and friend, Social Democrat leader Hjalmar Branting, now dismissed the author as a "disaster" who had betrayed his past ideals for a reactionary, mystical elitism.[120] In 1909, Branting remarked on Strindberg's shifting political and cultural posture, on the occasion of the author's sixtieth birthday:
To the young Strindberg, the trail-blazer, the rouser from sleep, let us offer all our praise and admiration. To the writer in a more mature age [let us offer] a place of rank on the
Aeropagus of European erudition. But to the Strindberg of Black Banners [1907] and A Blue Book [1907-1912], who, in the shadows of Inferno [1898] has been converted to a belief in the sickly, empty gospels of mysticism – let us wish, from our hearts, that he may once again become his past self. (Hjalmar Branting, in Social-Demokraten, 22 January 1909.)[125]
Toward the end of his life, however, Strindberg would dramatically reassert his role as a radical standard-bearer and return to the good graces of progressive Swedish opinion.
In April 1910, Strindberg launched a series of unprompted, insult-laden attacks on popular conservative symbols, viciously thrashing the nationalist cult of former king
Strindberg's daughter
Painting
Strindberg, something of a
Painting and photography offered vehicles for his belief that chance played a crucial part in the creative process.[129]
Strindberg's paintings were unique for their time, and went beyond those of his contemporaries for their radical lack of adherence to visual reality. The 117 paintings that are acknowledged as his were mostly painted within the span of a few years, and are now seen by some as among the most original works of 19th-century art.[130]
Today, his best-known pieces are stormy,
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The white horse, 1892
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The wonderland, 1894
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Marin, 1894
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The coast II, 1903
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Birch autumn I
Photography
Strindberg's interest in photography resulted, among other things, in a large number of arranged self-portraits in various environments, which now number among the best-known pictures of him. Strindberg also embarked on a series of camera-less images, using an experimental quasi-scientific approach. He produced a type of photogram that encouraged the development and growth of crystals on the photographic emulsion, sometimes exposed for lengthy periods to heat or cold in the open air or at night facing the stars. The suggestiveness of these, which he called Celestographs, provided an object for contemplation, and he noted;
Today, in these days of x-rays, the miracle was that neither a camera nor a lens was used. For me this means a great opportunity to demonstrate the real circumstances by means of my photographs made without a camera and lens, recording the firmament in early spring 1894.[132]
His interest in the occult in the 1890s finds sympathy with the chance quality of these images, but for him they are also scientific. In 1895 Strindberg met Camille Flammarion and became a member of the Société astronomique de France.[133] He gave some of his experimental astronomical photographs to the Society.[134]
Occult studies
In the curious and experimental 1897 work
Personal life
Strindberg was married three times, as follows:
- Siri von Essen: married 1877–1891 (14 years), 3 daughters (Karin Smirnov, Greta, and another who died in infancy), 1 son (Hans);
- Frida Uhl: married 1893–1895, (2 years) 1 daughter (Kerstin); and
- Harriet Bosse: married 1901–1904 (3 years), 1 daughter (Anne-Marie).
Strindberg was age 28 and Siri was 27 at the time of their marriage. He was 44 and Frida was 21 when they married, and he was 52 and Harriet was 23 when they married. Late during his life he met the young actress and painter Fanny Falkner (1890–1963) who was 41 years younger than Strindberg. She wrote a book which illuminates his last years, but the exact nature of their relationship is debated.[136] He had a brief affair in Berlin with Dagny Juel before his marriage to Frida; it has been suggested that the news of her murder in 1901 was the reason he cancelled his honeymoon with his third wife, Harriet.
He was related to Nils Strindberg (a son of one of August's cousins).
Strindberg's relationships with women were troubled and have often been interpreted as
Strindberg's last home was
Of several statues and busts of him erected in Stockholm, the most prominent is Carl Eldh's, erected in 1942 in Tegnérlunden, a park adjoining this house.
See also
Bibliography
- La cruauté et le théâtre de Strindberg de Pascale Roger, coll "Univers théâtral", L'Harmattan, Paris, 2004, 278 p.
- The Growth of a Soul (1914)
- The German Lieutenant, and Other Stories (1915)
- There Are Crimes and Crimes
References
- ^ "Strindberg". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
- ^ a b Lane (1998), 1040.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 3, 567.
- ^ Williams (1952), 75.
- ^ Williams (1952, 75).
- ^ Lane (1998), 1040–41.
- ^ Williams (1952), 75–6, 100.
- OCLC 1043147459.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link - ^ Adams (2002).
- ^ Meˈyer (1985), 79.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 49, 95.
- ^ Carlson (1993, 280), Innes (2000, 22), Lane (1998, 1040), and Williams (1952, 77–80).
- ^ Quoting from Strindberg's Preface to Miss Julie; see Carlson (1993, 281), Innes (2000, 12–13), and Lane (1998, 1040).
- ^ Carlson (1993, 280) and Lane (1998, 1040).
- ^ a b Lane (1998, 1040).
- ^ Lane (1998, 1040) and Meyer (1985, 350); on 23 August 1896 he wrote in a letter to Torsten Hedlund: "You said recently that people are looking for the Zola of occultism. That I feel is my vocation."
- ^ Lane (1998, 1041), Meyer (1985, 374), and Williams (1952, 86–93).
- ^ Carlson (1993, 346–347) and Lane (1998, 1041).
- ^ Lane (1998, 1041).
- ^ Lane (1998, 1041) and Williams (1952, 96–99).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 3–4). In his autobiographical novel, The Son of a Servant (1886), Strindberg described his father as "an aristocrat by birth and upbringing"; quoted by Meyer (1985, 8). When Johan August was four his father was declared bankrupt; see Meyer (1985, 7). He had two elder brothers, Carl Axel and Oscar, who were born before their parents were married. After Johan August came another brother, Olle, and three sisters, Anna, Elisabeth, and Nora; see Meyer (1988, 3, 7).
- ^ Merriam-Webster (1995, 1074–5). One of his biographers, Olof Lagercrantz, warns against the use of The Son of a Servant as a biographical source. Lagercrantz notes Strindberg's "talent to make us believe what he wants us to believe" and his unwillingness to accept any characterization of his person other than his own (1984).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 9–10). Norrtullsgatan is not far from Tegnérlunden, the park where Carl Eldh's grand statue of Strindberg was later placed.
- ^ Höök, Erik. "Norrmalm". Strindberg Museum (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
Strindberg bodde större delen av sin uppväxt i olika malmgårdar nära Norrtull. Längs bodde man på Norrtullsgatan 14, där Norrtulls sjukhus nu ligger.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 11).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 10).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 11–13).
- ^ a b Meyer (1985, 13).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 12–13).
- ^ a b Meyer (1985, 13–15).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 15). Together they had a son, Emil, who was born in the year after their marriage.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 18–19).
- ^ Adams (2002).
- ^ Meyer (1985), 30.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 30–2.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 31). The membership was restricted to a maximum of nine.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 31–2.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 32.
- ^ a b c d e f Robinson (2009), xvii.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 32–4).
- ^ Meyer (1985), 34–5.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 37.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 38–9.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 37, 40–1.
- ^ The Outlaw was first published in December 1876; see Meyer (1985), 71.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 41–3). After asking when he could expect the next payment in the spring of 1872, he was informed that it was not a regular arrangement, but was sent one further payment.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 43.
- ^ Merriam-Webster (1995), 1074–5.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 49).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 43–4).
- ^ Lagercrantz (1984), 73.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 70.
- ^ Robinson (2009, xviii). Meyer gives the collection's date of publication as December 1876, while Lagercrantz and Robinson give it as December 1877.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 44).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 46–7).
- ^ a b Lagercrantz (1984), 49.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 53. He was accepted for the position despite not possessing the requisite university degree; it is possible that two articles that had been published in The Swedish Citizen in March 1874, in which he praised the library and its chief librarian, may have prompted his acceptance. After taking several periods of unpaid leave in 1881–82, he finally resigned from the library on 31 August 1882.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 92.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 55–6.
- ^ Lagercrantz (1984), 54–58.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 57–60. "All his life, Strindberg, while affecting to despise aristocrats, was unwillingly attracted by them." Strindberg in different works gives both late May and June as the date of their first meeting. Siri had performed as an amateur, but her husband did not want her to become a professional.
- ^ Lagercrantz (1984), 57.
- ^ Lagercrantz (1984, 60–61) and Meyer (1985, 63, 109).
- ^ Lagercrantz (1984), 61–3.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 63).
- ^ Lagercrantz (1984), 71.
- ^ Meyer (1985), 70–2.
- ^ Lagercrantz (1984), 69–70.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 75).
- ^ Lagercrantz (1984), 75–7.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 76).
- ^ Lagercrantz (1984), 79.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 77).
- ^ a b Meyer (1985, 79).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 79–80).
- ^ Meyer (1985), 81.
- ^ Robinson (2009, xix).
- ^ Quoted by Meyer (1985, 84).
- ^ Letter to Edvard Brandes, 29 July 1880; quoted by Meyer (1985, 85).
- ^ a b Meyer (1985, 82).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 81–2) and Robinson (2009, xix).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 81, 86). The first two volumes appeared in November and December 1880.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 88).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 83, 90–97) and Robinson (2009, xix).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 90).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 91).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 91) and Robinson (2009, xix). Meyer translates the title as Cultural-Historical Studies. The collection includes Strindberg's assessment of Impressionism.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 89, 95) and Robinson (2009, xix). Lane gives the length of the production as six hours. The name of the theatre in Swedish is Nya Teatern. Two former theatres of Stockholm have used this name (one is also known as the Swedish Theatre, which burnt-down in 1925, while the other, Mindre teatern, was demolished in 1908). August Lindberg took over from Edvard Stjernström, who founded the one known as the Swedish Theatre; see Lane (1998, 1040) and Meyer (1985, 89).
- ^ Lane (1998, 1040), Meyer (1985, 96), and Robinson (2009, xix).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 96–97).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 99).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 81, 102) and Robinson (2009, xix–xx).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 126) and Robinson (2009, xx).
- ^ Meyer (129–141) and Robinson (2009, xx).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 135).
- ^ Quoted by Meyer (1985, 142).
- ^ Meyer (145).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 143).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 130, 146–147).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 147).
- ^ Lagercrantz (1984, 55), Meyer (1985, 178–179), and Schleussner (1912). The title of the novel (Le Plaidoyer d'un Fou) has also been translated as The Confession of a Fool, A Madman's Defence and A Fool's Apology. A public domain English-language translation is available online.
- ^ Robinson (2009, xxi). The play's original title was Marauders. It received its première on 23 October 1905 at the Lustspieltheater in Vienna.
- ^ Meyer (1985, 183) and Robinson (2009, xxi).
- ^ Meyer (1985, 183–185).
- ^ https://stockholmskallan.stockholm.se/post/24641
- ^ "Strindberg, August. Translated and with an Introduction by Donald K. Weaver. Series: Studies on Themes and Motifs in Literature – Volume 101. Peter Lang, New York, 2010". Archived from the original on 1 April 2012.
- ^ Karin Smirnov (née Strindberg), Strindbergs första hustru (Strindberg's first wife), 1925 and Olof Lagercrantz, August Strindberg, 1979
- ^ Oland and Oland (1912a) and (1912b, v).
- ^ Gefle Dagblad (in Swedish). Archived from the originalon 11 October 2017. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
- ^ Lizzy Lind-af-Hageby (1 January 1913). August Strindberg: the spirit of revolt: studies and impressions. Stanley Paul.
- ^ Krook, Caroline (22 May 2012). "Brottningen med Gud präglade begravningen". Svenska Dagbladet (in Swedish). Retrieved 26 June 2017.
- ^ Adams (2002).
- ^ Eugene O'Neill (10 December 1936). "Banquet Speech". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 12 July 2010.
- ISBN 9780140290110.
- ^ Scheffauer, Herman (1 August 1913). "A Correspondence between Nietzsche and Strindberg". The North American Review. 198. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
- ^ August Strindbergs lilla katekes för underklassen, Karneval förlag
- ^ Inferno, Alone, and other writings: In new translations, August Strindberg, Edited by Evert Sprinchorn, Anchor Books, 1968, p. 62
- ^ Selected essays, August Strindberg, Edited by Michael Robinson, Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 233
- ^ a b Olsson, Jan (17 October 2017). "Strindberg – En kooperatör". Svensk kooperation. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
- ^ a b Kylberg, Martin (10 May 2012). "Strindberg 2: Istappen och eftermälet". Östgöta-Correspondenten. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
- ^ Strindberg, August (1999). Nationalupplagan, samlade verk 25: En dåres försvarstal. Norstedt. p. 534. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
- ^ Myrdal, Jan (2003). Johan August Strindberg. Natur och Kultur. pp. 143–173. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
- ^ Myrdal, Jan (2003). Johan August Strindberg. Natur och Kultur. p. 151. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
- ^ "Strindbergs liv". Strindbergsmuséet. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
- ^ Myrdal, Jan (2003). Johan August Strindberg. Natur och Kultur. p. 46. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
- ^ Andreas Nyblom (2011). "Strindbergsfejden 1910–1912". Litteraturbanken. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
- ^ Krook, Caroline (18 December 2012). "Brottningen med Gud präglade begravningen". Svenska Dagbladet. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
- ^ "Usykin", RCHGI (in Russian), RU: SPB, 2001, archived from the original on 18 July 2010
- ^ "Strindberg exhibition, Tate Modern". Archived from the original on 30 December 2007.
- ^ Gunnarsson (1998, 256–60).
- ^ Gunnarsson (1998, 256).
- ^ "Traces of/by nature:August Strindberg's photographic experiments of the 1890s". IWM. 10 February 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2019.
- ^ Bulletin de la Société Astronomique de France 1896, p. 438.
- ^ Robinson, Michael (2006). August Strindberg: Selected Essays. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 260.
- ^ Lagercrantz, Olof (1979). Olof Lagercrantz. Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand.
- ^ Falkner (1921). The book's title includes the name of Strindberg's home in his final years (Bla Tornet).
Sources
- Adams, Ann-Charlotte Gavel, ed. 2002. Dictionary of Literary Biography. Vol. 259 Twentieth-Century Swedish Writers Before World War II. Detroit, MI: Gale. ISBN 0-7876-5261-X.
- Carlson, Marvin. 1993. Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present. Expanded ed. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8154-3.
- Ekman, Hans-Göran. 2000. Strindberg and the Five Senses: Studies in Strindberg's Chamber Plays. London and New Brunswick, New Jersey: Athlone. ISBN 0-485-11552-2.
- Gunnarsson, Torsten. 1998. Nordic Landscape Painting in the Nineteenth Century. New Haven: Yale UP. ISBN 0-300-07041-1.
- Innes, Christopher, ed. 2000. A Sourcebook on Naturalist Theatre. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15229-1.
- Lagercrantz, Olof. 1984. August Strindberg. Trans. Anselm Hollo. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux. ISBN 0-374-10685-1.
- Lane, Harry. 1998. "Strindberg, August." In The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Ed. Martin Banham. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 1040–41. ISBN 0-521-43437-8.
- Strindberg, August; Martinus, Eivor, trans (1987), Motherly Love, Pariah, The First Warning, Oxford: Amber Lane, ISBN 0-906399-79-3).
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - Strindberg, August; Martinus, Eivor, trans (1990), The Great Highway, Classics, Bath: Absolute, ISBN 0-948230-28-2).
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - Strindberg, August (1995), McLeish, Kenneth (ed.), Miss Julie, London: ISBN 978-1-85459-205-7
- Encyclopedia of Literature, Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1995, ISBN 0-87779-042-6.
- Meyer, Michael (1987) [1985], Strindberg: A Biography, Lives, Oxford: Oxford UP, ISBN 0-19-281995-X.
- Oland, Edith; Oland, Wärner, transl.; Strindberg, August (1912), Plays, vol. 1: The Father, Countess Julie, The Outlaw, The Stronger, Boston: Luce
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link). - Oland, Edith; Oland, Wärner, transl.; Strindberg, August (1912), Plays, vol. 2: Comrades, Facing Death, Pariah, Easter, Boston: Luce
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link). - Oland, Wärner, transl.; Strindberg, August (1912), Oland, Edith (ed.), Plays, vol. 3: "Swanwhite, Advent, The Storm, Boston: Luce
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link). - Paulson, Arvid, transl; Strindberg, August (1970), World Historical Plays, New York: Twayne Publishers & The American-Scandinavian Foundation, ISBN 1-135-84140-3).
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - Robinson, Michael, ed. (2009), The Cambridge Companion to August Strindberg, Companions to Literature, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, ISBN 978-0-521-60852-7.
- ISBN 0-14-044488-2).
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - Schluessner, Ellie, transl; Strindberg, August (1912), The Confession of a Fool, London: Stephen Swift
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link). - Schluessner, Ellie, transl; Strindberg, August (1913), The Red Room, New York and London: Putnam
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link). - Ward, John. 1980. The Social and Religious Plays of Strindberg. London: Athlone. ISBN 0-485-11183-7.
- ISBN 0-7012-0793-0.
- ISBN 0-7011-1260-3.
- ISBN 0-86091-955-2.
Further reading
- ISBN 0-226-22481-3(bpk)
- Brita M. E. Mortensen, Brian W. Downs, Strindberg: An Introduction to His Life and Work, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965 [1][permanent dead link]
- Gundlach, Angelika; Scherzer, Jörg (Ed.): Der andere Strindberg – Materialien zu Malerei, Photographie und Theaterpraxis, Frankfurt a. M.: Insel-Verlag, 1981. ISBN 3-458-31929-8
- Hallström, Fatima (February 2002). "Strindberg: The Verbalizer as Visualizer". Black & White. 4 (17): 70–72. ISSN 1522-4805.
- Heller, Otto (1918), , , New York: Alfred A. Knopf, pp. 71–105
- Prideaux, Sue, Strindberg: A Life, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0300136937
- Schroeder, J., Stenport, A., and Szalczer, E., editors, August Strindberg and Visual Culture, New York: Bloomsbury, 2018. ISBN 978-1-5013-3800-7
- Sprinchorn, Evert, Strindberg As Dramatist, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982. ISBN 978-0300027310
- Stamper, Judith (1975), review of the production of To Damascus at the ISSN 0307-2029
External links
Archival collections
English-language translations in the public domain
- Works by August Strindberg in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
- Works by August Strindberg at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about August Strindberg at Internet Archive
- Works by August Strindberg at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Public domain translations of Strindberg's drama
- The Father, Countess Julie, The Outlaw, The Stronger
- Comrades, Facing Death, Pariah, Easter
- Swanwhite, Advent, The Storm
- There are Crimes and Crimes, Miss Julia, The Stronger, Creditors, and Pariah
- To Damascus Part 1
- Road To Damascus Parts 1, 2, and 3
- Public domain translations of Strindberg's novels
Other
- August Strindberg at the Internet Broadway Database
- August Strindberg at IMDb
- Photographs by Strindberg from the National Library of Sweden on Flickr
- Strindberg Rep at Theater for the New City
- Strindberg, August, Works (in Swedish), Projekt Runeberg.
- Strindberg, August, Collected works and manuscripts (in Swedish), Swedish Literature Bank.
- Strindberg, Collected works (in Swedish) (National ed.), Stockholm University, archived from the original on 31 October 2001.
- "Concordance", Språkbanken, SE: Gothenburg University, archived from the originalon 24 January 2010, retrieved 8 October 2009.
- August Strindberg and absinthe; in his life and in his works
- Strindbergssällskapet [The Strindberg Society], archived from the original on 12 August 2010, retrieved 11 April 2010.
- Strindbergs Museet [The Strindberg museum], SE, archived from the original on 11 June 1998.
- Strindberg Museum in Austria (in German), Saxen, Upper Austria.
- August Strindberg Society, Los Angeles, CA, USA, archived from the original on 28 July 2011, retrieved 11 April 2005.
- Productions of Strindberg's plays, Australia: AusStage
- "The Celestographs of August Strindberg", Cabinet, Summer 2001.
- Review of exhibition of paintings by Strindberg, British Theatre Guide, archived from the original on 3 March 2016, retrieved 14 November 2008
- Strindberg and Helium.
- Strindberg, August, "The New Arts! or The Role of Chance in Artistic Creation", in Robinson, Michael (ed.), Selected essays[permanent dead link].
- A Dream Play (manuscript) at World Digital Library
- Burkhart Brückner: Biography of Johan August Strindberg in: Biographical Archive of Psychiatry (BIAPSY).