String (music)
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A string is the
There are two main kinds of strings; plain and wound. "Plain" strings are simply one piece of cylindrical material, commonly consisted of nylon or gut, while "wound" strings have a central core, plus other material which is tightly wound around the string(usually made of various metals).[1]
Prior to World War II, strings of many instruments(including violins and guitars) were composed of a material known as catgut, a type of cord made from refined natural fibers of animal intestines. This was the status quo until the 1950s. This is when mainstream popularity fell for gut strings, and steel and nylon strings became more favored in string making, although still prized by many musicians today, due to its unique sound.[2] The invention of wound strings(particularly steel) was a crucial step in string instrument technology, because a metal-wound string can produce a lower pitch than a plain gut string of similar thickness. This enabled stringed instruments to be made with thinner bass strings.
On string instruments that the player plucks or bows directly (e.g.,
String construction
The end of the string that mounts to the instrument's
Winding types
There are several varieties of wound strings available.
Roundwound
Roundwound are the simplest and most basic wound strings, they have round wire wrapped in a tight spiral around either a round or hexagonal core. Such strings are usually simple to manufacture and the least expensive. They have several drawbacks, however:
- Roundwound strings have a bumpy surface profile (the bumps of the winding) that produce friction on the player's fingertips. This causes squeaking sounds when the player's fingers slide over the strings, especially when used on PA system. (Some artists use this sound creatively, such as hardcore punk and heavy metal music electric guitarists who scrape the pickdown the lower-pitched strings for an effect.)
- Roundwound strings' higher friction surface profile may hasten fingerboard and fret wear, compared with smoother flatwound strings.
- When the core is round, the winding is less secure and may rotate freely around the core, especially if the winding is damaged after use.
Flatwound
Flatwound strings are string that have either a round or hex core. However, the winding wire has a rounded square cross-section that has a shallower profile (in cross-section) when tightly wound. This makes for more comfortable playing, and decreased wear for frets and fretboards (this makes them a popular choice for fretless instruments). Squeaking sounds due to fingers sliding along the strings are also decreased significantly. Flatwound strings also have a longer playable life because of smaller grooves for dirt and oil to build up in.
On the other hand, flatwound strings sound less bright than roundwounds and tend to be harder to bend. Flatwounds also usually cost more than roundwounds because of less demand, less production, and higher overhead costs. Manufacturing is also more difficult, as precise alignment of the flat sides of the winding must be maintained (some rotation of the winding on roundwound strings is acceptable).[3][4]
Modern bowed strings are plain (typically the higher-pitched, thinner strings) or flatwound, to allow smooth playing and reduce bow hair breakage. There is a niche market for roundwound fiddle strings.
Halfround, halfwound, ground wound, pressure wound
Halfround (also referred to as halfwound, ground wound, or pressure wound strings) are string that are cross between roundwound and flatwound. Such strings are usually made by winding round wire around a round or hex core first, then polishing, grinding (thus the name, ground wound) or pressing the exterior part of the winding until it is practically flat. This results in the flat, comfortable playing feel of flatwounds, along with less squeaking, with a brightness generally between roundwounds and flatwounds. The polishing process removes almost half of the winding wire's mass; thus, to compensate for it, manufacturers use winding wire of a heavier gauge. Because of the extra manufacturing process involved, they are normally more expensive than roundwounds, but less than flatwounds.
Core Types
There are two types, or shapes, of core wire typically used in wound strings.
Hexcore
Hexcore strings are composed of hexagonal core wire and a tight (usually round) winding. Hexcore string design prevents the winding from slipping around the core – which can occur with round core strings. This may improve tuning stability, flexibility, and reduce string breakage, compared to round core strings.[5]
Round core
Round core strings are composed of regular round core and a tight (usually round) winding. Round core is the traditional "vintage" way of manufacturing and results in a greater contact between the winding and the core of the string.
Gauge
Bowed instrument strings, such as for the violin or cello, are usually described by tension rather than gauge. Fretted instruments (guitar, banjo, etc.) strings are usually described by gauge—the diameter of the string. The tone of a string depends partly on weight, and, therefore, on its diameter—its gauge. Usually, string manufacturers that do not describe strings by tension list string diameter in thousandths of an inch (0.001 in = 0.0254 mm). The larger the diameter, the heavier the string. Heavier strings require more tension for the same pitch and are, as a consequence, harder to press down to the fingerboard. A fretted instrument that is restrung with different string gauges may require adjustment to the string height above the frets (the "action") to maintain playing ease or keep the strings from buzzing against the frets. The action height of fretless instruments is also adjusted to suit the string gauge or material, as well as the intended playing style.
Guitar
Steel strings for six-string guitar usually come in sets of matched strings. Sets are usually referenced either by the gauge of the first string (e.g., 9), or by pair of first and last (e.g., 9–42); measurements in thousands of an inch are the de facto standard, regardless of whether Imperial units are used in a country. Some manufacturers may have slightly different gauge sequences; the sample data below comes from D'Addario string charts for regular, round-wound, nickel-plated strings.
Electric guitar
The following table displays the gauges in inches: (Note: strings in dark gray boxes are wound. All others are plain.)
Name | 1 (E) |
2 (B) |
3 (G) |
4 (D) |
5 (A) |
6 (E) |
7 (B) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Extra Super Light (8–38) | .008 | .010 | .015 | .021 | .030 | .038 | -- |
Extra Super Light Plus (8.5–39) | .0085 | .0105 | .015 | .022 | .032 | .039 | -- |
Super Light (9–42)(54) | .009 | .011 | .016 | .024 | .032 | .042 | .054 |
Super Light Plus (9.5–44) | .0095 | .0115 | .016 | .024 | .034 | .044 | -- |
Super Light / Regular (9–46) | .009 | .011 | .016 | .026 | .036 | .046 | -- |
Regular Light (10–46)(56) | .010 | .013 | .017 | .026 | .036 | .046 | .056 |
Regular Light Plus(10.5–48) | .0105 | .0135 | .018 | .028 | .038 | .048 | -- |
Medium (11–49)(64) | .011 | .014 | .018 | .028 | .038 | .049 | .064 |
Light Top / Heavy Bottom (10–52) | .010 | .013 | .017 | .030 | .042 | .052 | -- |
Medium / Heavy (11–52) | .011 | .014 | .018 | .030 | .042 | .052 | -- |
Heavy (12–54) | .012 | .016 | .020 | .032 | .042 | .054 | -- |
Extra Heavy (13–56) | .013 | .017 | .026 | .036 | .046 | .056 | -- |
The following table displays the gauges in millimeters:
Name | 1 (E) |
2 (B) |
3 (G) |
4 (D) |
5 (A) |
6 (E) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Extra Super Light (8–38) | 0.2032 | 0.2540 | 0.3810 | 0.5334 | 0.7620 | 0.9652 |
Extra Super Light Plus (812.7–39) | 0.2159 | 0.2667 | 0.3810 | 0.5588 | 0.8128 | 0.9906 |
Super Light (9–42) | 0.2286 | 0.2794 | 0.4064 | 0.6096 | 0.8128 | 1.0668 |
Super Light Plus (9–44) | 0.2413 | 0.2921 | 0.4064 | 0.6096 | 0.8636 | 1.1176 |
Light (10–46) | 0.2540 | 0.3302 | 0.4318 | 0.6604 | 0.9144 | 1.1684 |
Extra Light w/Light Bass (9–46) | 0.2286 | 0.2794 | 0.4064 | 0.7366 | 0.9144 | 1.1684 |
Medium (11-48/49) | 0.2794 | 0.3556 | 0.4572 | 0.7112 | 0.9652 | 1.2192~1.2446 |
Light Top / Heavy Bottom (10–52) | 0.2540 | 0.3302 | 0.4318 | 0.8128 | 1.0668 | 1.3208 |
Medium Plus w/Wound G String (11–52) | 0.2794 | 0.3302 | 0.5080 | 0.7620 | 1.0668 | 1.3208 |
Heavy (12–54) | 0.3048 | 0.4064 | 0.5080 | 0.8128 | 1.0668 | 1.3716 |
Extra Heavy (13–56) | 0.3302 | 0.4318 | 0.6604 | 0.9144 | 1.1684 | 1.4224 |
Acoustic guitar
String gauge is subject to the personal preferences of the musician, but acoustic guitars are typically strung with a heavier gauge than electric guitars. The need for projection due to lack of amplification is one of the main reasons for this.[6] (Note: strings in dark gray boxes are bronze wound. All others are plain. These are for steel-string guitars, not classical nylon/gut strings. The gauge values are in inches.)
Name | 1 (E) |
2 (B) |
3 (G) |
4 (D) |
5 (A) |
6 (E) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Extra light (10–47) | .010 | .014 | .023 | .030 | .039 | .047 |
Custom light (11–52) | .011 | .015 | .023 | .032 | .042 | .052 |
Light (12–54) | .012 | .016 | .025 | .032 | .042 | .054 |
Light/Medium (12.5–55) | .0125 | .0165 | .0255 | .0335 | .0435 | .055 |
Medium (13–56) | .013 | .017 | .026 | .035 | .045 | .056 |
Heavy (14–59) | .014 | .018 | .027 | .039 | .049 | .059 |
Bass guitar
Bass guitar strings are sometimes made for a particular scale length and come in short, medium, long and extra long (sometimes called super long) scale. Almost all bass guitar strings are made wound. Typical bass guitar strings come in the following gauges:
Name | 6 (C) |
1 (G) |
2 (D) |
3 (A) |
4 (E) |
5 (B) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Super Light (40–95) | --- | .040 | .060 | .075 | .095 | .125 |
Custom Light (40–100) | --- | .040 | .060 | .080 | .100 | --- |
Regular Light (45–100) | .032 | .045 | .065 | .080 | .100 | .130 |
Regular Medium (45–105) | .032 | .045 | .065 | .085 | .105 | .135 |
Medium (50–105) | --- | .050 | .070 | .085 | .105 | .135 |
Heavy (55–110) | --- | .055 | .075 | .090 | .110 | --- |
Bowed strings
Since the 20th century, with the advent of steel and synthetic core strings, most bowed instrument string makers market their strings by tension rather than by diameter. They typically make string sets in three tension levels: heavy, medium, and light (German stark, mittel, and weich). These tension levels are not standardized between manufacturers, and do not correlate to specific diameters. One brand's medium strings may have quite a different tension from another brand's medium. Based on available historical records, gut strings were sold before 1900 in a similar way.
On the other hand, modern gut core strings with metal winding, typically have been sold either ungauged for less expensive brands, or by specific gauge. The Gustav Pirazzi company in Germany introduced the Pirazzi meter (PM) measurement early in the 20th century. One PM equals .05 mm. For example, a 14 1/2 PM gauge string has is .725 mm in diameter. Pirazzi (now known as Pirastro) continues to sell its Oliv, Eudoxa, and Passione brand premium gut core strings by PM gauge. Each string is available in 5 or more discrete gauges. Manufacturers of traditional plain gut strings, often used in historically informed performance, sell their products by light/medium/heavy, by PM, by mm or some combination.
Core materials
Steel forms the core of most metal strings. Certain keyboard instruments (e.g., harpsichord) and the Gaelic harp use brass. Other natural materials, such as silk or gut—or synthetics such as nylon and kevlar are also used for string cores. (Steel used for strings, called music wire, is hardened and tempered.) Some violin E strings are gold-plated to improve tone quality.
Steel
Steel or metal strings have become the foundation of strings for the electric guitar and bass. They have a pleasingly bright tone when compared to nylon strung guitars. Their metal composition varies greatly, sometimes using many different alloys as plating. Much of the history of metal strings evolved through innovations with the piano. In fact, the first wound metal strings ever used were used in a piano. However, when it came to getting super small diameter strings with good elastic properties, the electric guitar took the metal string to the next level adapting it for the use of pickups.
Because of the higher tension of steel strings, steel-strung guitars are more robustly made than 'classical' guitars, which use synthetic strings. Most jazz and folk string players prefer steel-core strings for their faster response, low cost, and tuning stability.[7]
Nylon
Nylon (typically 610 or 612) string,[8] traditionally used for classical music, has a more mellow tone, and the responsiveness of it can be enjoyed typically for folk but other styles of music use it as well (for example, Willie Nelson performs on a nylon strung guitar). Nylon strings are made of a softer, less dense material and are under less tension than steel strings (about 50% less). This means they can be used on older guitars that can't support the tension of modern steel strings.
Nylon strings do not work with magnetic pickups, which require ferrous strings that can interact with the magnetic field of the pickups to produce a signal.
Currently, stranded nylon is one of the most popular materials for the cores of violin, viola, cello, and double bass strings. It is often sold under the trade name of Perlon. Nylon guitar strings were first developed by
Gut
The
Animal intestines are composed largely of elastomers, making them very flexible. But they are also extremely hygroscopic, which makes them susceptible to pitch fluctuation as a result of changing humidity. Exposure to moisture from the sweat of a musician's hands can cause plain (unwound) gut strings to fray and eventually break. This is not as much of a problem with wound gut strings, in which the gut core, being protected from contact with perspiration by the metal winding (and underlayer, if there is one), lasts a much longer time. Nonetheless, as such a gut string ages and continually responds to cyclic changes in temperature and humidity, the core becomes weak and brittle, and eventually breaks. Furthermore, all gut strings are vulnerable to going out of tune due to changes in atmospheric humidity.
However, even after the introduction of metal and synthetic core materials, many musicians still prefer to use gut strings, believing that they provide a superior tone. Players associated with the period performance movement use wound and unwound gut strings as part of an effort to recreate the sound of music of the Classical, Baroque, and Renaissance periods, as listeners would have heard it at the time of composition.
For players of plucked instruments, Nylgut strings are a recently developed alternative to gut strings. They are made from a specialty nylon and purport to offer the same acoustic properties as gut strings without the tuning problems.
Fluoropolymers (aka "Carbon")
The so-called Carbon material has a higher
Other polymers
Other polymers, including
Silk
Silk was extensively used in China for
Winding materials
Some
Phosphor bronze
Phosphor bronze was introduced by D'Addario in the early 1970s. Phosphor bronze is said to keep its "new" sound longer than other strings. Small amounts of phosphorus and zinc are added to the bronze mixture. This makes the phosphor bronze slightly more corrosion resistant than 80/20 bronze.
80/20 Bronze
80/20 bronze strings are 80 percent copper and 20 percent zinc.[15] The zinc also gives it a brighter tone, additional hardness and slows down the aging process. With additional string coating, they are preserved even more. Although, If some of the coating is applied poorly, the strings can lose their tone in just a matter of hours, and if left in high humidity can turn a hint of green because of the copper and corrode with time. The name "80/20 Bronze" is a misnomer since bronze is by definition an alloy of copper and tin. "80/20 bronze" strings would be more correctly referred to as brass.[16]
Nickel-plated steel
Some acoustic players use strings, wound with nickel-plated-steel, meant for electric guitar. The properties of the nickel-plated strings make it a good choice for flattop guitars with sound hole-mounted magnetic pickups.
String corrosion and prevention
[17] All metal strings are susceptible to
Coating and plating
Some common types of metal plating on strings include tin, nickel, gold, and silver. Some metals such as gold and silver give the strings a different sound. Among strings coated with a
Boiling strings (guitar and bass)
Some musicians boil guitar or bass strings to rejuvenate them. The high temperature of the boiling water helps free the strings of oil, salt, and grime from the player's hands. When a string is played, very small metal shavings from fret wear may break off and lodge between the windings of the strings. Heating the strings can expand these particles and separate them from the windings. Some players use deionized water to boil strings, believing that mineral deposits in tap water may aid corrosion of the string core. After boiling, strings may have less elasticity and be more brittle, depending on the quality of the alloys involved. Putting the strings through a cycle in the dishwasher has also been known to work.[22]
String vibration
A string vibrates in a complex harmonic pattern. Every time the player sets a string in motion, a specific set of frequencies resonate based on the
In a phenomenon called
Resonance can cause
For a typical high-E nylon string, the maximum transverse force is roughly 40 times greater than the maximum longitudinal force amplitude. However, the longitudinal force increases with the square of the pulse amplitude, so the differences diminish with increasing amplitude. The elastic (Young's) modulus for steel is about 40 times greater than for nylon, and string tensions are about 50% greater, so the longitude and transverse force amplitudes are nearly equal.[24]
Tensile properties
Tuning a stringed instrument such as a guitar to pitch puts the strings under a large amount of strain, which indicates the amount of stress inside the string. Stress is relative to the stretch or elongation of the strings. As the string is tuned to a higher pitch, it gets longer and thinner. The instrument can go out of tune because if it has been stretched past its elastic limit, it will not recover its original tension. On a stress vs. strain curve, there is a linear region where stress and strain are related called Young's modulus. A newer set of strings will often be in a region on the stress vs. strain curve past the Young's modulus called the plastic region. In the plastic region, plastic deformation occurs—deformation the material cannot recover from. Thus, in the plastic region, the relationship is not linear (Young's modulus is no longer a constant). The elastic region is where elastic deformation is occurring, or deformation from where the string can recover. The linear (i.e. elastic) region is where musicians want to play their instrument.[25]
See also
References
- ^ Sweetwater (2009-12-10). "Wound or Unwound?". inSync. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
- ^ Pecotić, Iva (May 2023). "HE HISTORY, EVOLUTION, AND MAINTENANCE OF VIOLIN STRINGS". University of North Dakota. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
- ^ "Bassist FAQ on strings". Houston Bass Lessons. Retrieved 2017-05-27.
- ^ "Other notes: Bass string types". Joeysbassnotes.com. Retrieved 2017-05-27.
- ^ "Handmade Guitar Strings: What's the difference? | Stringjoy Handmade Strings". Retrieved 2016-08-13.
- ^ TuneMan. "The Guide to Guitar Strings". Open D Tuning. Retrieved 2017-05-27.
- ^ "Steel strings 101". www.premierguitar.com. Retrieved 2016-08-13.
- ^ "Should I choose a nylon or a steel string guitar?". FirstGuitar.com. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
- Albert Augustine Strings. Archived from the originalon 2009-08-03.
- ^ Lozano, Ed (2023-02-17). "50 Easy Guitar Tabs For Beginners and Instructors". Revo Guitar Straps. Retrieved 2023-02-20.
- ^ "Pyramid maximum performance strings". Pyramid-Saiten (in German).
- ^ US patent application US20070084329 A1.
- ^ US patent no. US 5900314 A.
- ^ "Through Qin strings, inquiring about the guqin's past, present, and future path of development". Silkqin.com. 1999-08-15. Retrieved 2017-05-27.
- ^ "The Unspoken Mystery Behind Acoustic Guitar Strings". Professorstring.com. Retrieved 2017-05-27.
- Elixir Strings. Retrieved 2017-05-27.
- ^ String, Professor. "Guitar and Bass Strings FAQ". Retrieved 12 December 2012.
- ^ String, Professor. "What is The Guitar String Tone Curve Doing To Your Sound?". Retrieved 28 January 2013.
- ^ Toyer, Drew. "Looking Forward to Lubricant Oxidation?". Retrieved 12 December 2012.
- ^ "Teflon". Lenntech. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
- ^ "ETFE Properties". Fluorotherm.com. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
- ^ "Boiling Guitar Strings". www.professorstring.com. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
- ^ String, Professor. "What really makes your guitar or bass sound they way YOU like it?". Retrieved 12 December 2012.
- ISBN 978-1-4419-7109-8.
- ^ Agile, Technologies. "Engineer and the Guitar". Retrieved 12 December 2012.
External links
- Videos explaining differences among guitar strings Archived 2013-09-16 at the Wayback Machine
- Identify strings by their silk patterns
- The vibrations of strings with both ends fixed Archived 2005-12-19 at the Wayback Machine
- Guitar Strings From The Nineteenth Century To The Advent Of Nylon
- String Calculation; String Measurement; Mass Per Unit Length
- String Tension – technical information on string tension, with tension calculator