Strisores

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Strisores
Temporal range:
Early
Ma[1]
Possibly an earlier origin based on molecular clock[2]
Caprimulgidae
)
Male
Trochilidae
)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Clade: Passerea
Clade: Strisores
Cabanis, 1847
Orders

Strisores (

Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy) and the Aegotheliformes form the Daedalornithes.[4]

Description

The material evidence for this group is very equivocal; the most ancient Strisores are quite nondescript tree-dwellers but already tend towards peculiarly

rami mandibulae slender in their distal half.[citation needed
]

Taxonomic history

The taxonomy of this group of birds has a long and complicated history.

frogmouths) and the Amphibolae (hoatzin, mousebirds, and turacos).[5] Hermann Burmeister later excluded the taxa in Cabanis' Amphibolae from Strisores, but added kingfishers and motmots.[6]
Subsequent authors used either definition according to their own judgement, with Baird following Cabanis',[7] and Cooper following Burmeister's usage.[8] In 1867, Thomas Henry Huxley proposed the name Cypselomorphae for hummingbirds, swifts, and nightjars (including owlet-nightjars and potoos), however, he considered frogmouths and oilbirds unrelated due to aspects of their skull morphology.[9] In the 1880s Anton Reichenow continued to use Strisores in a similar sense as Huxley's Cypselomorphae (this time also excluding the owlet-nightjars),[10] but by the late 19th Century, Strisores had fallen into disuse,[11] and this remained the case through the 20th Century.[12][13][14][15]

By the early 21st century, analyses of anatomical morphology and molecular phylogenomics demonstrated that the order Caprimulgiformes as had been used for much of the 20th century (oilbirds, potoos, nightjars, frogmouths, and owlet-nightjars) is actually paraphyletic respective to Apodiformes (hummingbirds, swifts, and treeswifts), with apodiform birds nesting deeply within caprimulgiformes and a sister taxon to the owlet-nightjars.[16][17] The discovery has led to a challenge of reconciling a Linnean hierarchy with phylogenetic relationships while still maintaining nomenclatural stability, resulting in a complicated situation where some researchers currently use the resurrected name Strisores in a new sense,[17][18] others expand the order Caprimulgiformes to include the 'traditional' apodiform families,[19] whereas others[20] use the superordinal name Caprimulgimorphae Cracraft, 2013,[21] raising the 'traditional' caprimulgiform families to the rank of order.

Proposed phylogenetic definitions of Strisores and Caprimulgimorphae treat Strisores as the

total group.[22]
This allows both names to be valid, with similar but not identical meanings.

Evolution

Fossil of Hassiavis laticauda, a probable daedalornithean,[22] from the Messel fossil site

Strisores has a well-represented fossil record, with fossils of most major strisorean lineages known from the

Early Eocene (though this is somewhat uncertain), seems to be a basal
form that at times has been allied with the oilbird and the potoos, but cannot be assigned to either with certainty. In the consensus scenario, it would represent a record of the initial divergence of the three lineages.

This agrees with fossils suggesting that the basal divergence of the owlet-nightjar and apodiform branch also occurred during that time. In addition,

Late Paleocene or Early Eocene genus of North America, cannot be assigned to any one strisore lineage with certainty but appears to be some ancestral form.[1] Over some 20 million years, throughout the Eocene, the present-day diversity (as well as some entirely extinct lineages) slowly unfolds. By mid-Oligocene, some 30 million years ago, the crown lineages are present and adapting to their present-day ecological niches
.

These

mya (Selandian-Thanetian), and that some time around the Lutetian-Bartonian
boundary, some 40 mya, the common ancestors of Nyctibiidae, Caprimulgidae and eared nightjars diverged from those of oilbird and frogmouths.

The relationships of the Early Eocene Parvicuculus and Procuculus from the southern North Sea basin are unresolved, but they bear some similarities to strisores.

By the distribution of fossils, the Paleogene radiation seems to have originated in Asia, which at that time became a highly fragmented landscape as the Himalayas lifted up and the Turgai Strait started to disappear.

Several fossil

basal or incertae sedis

Systematics

Strisores contains the extant orders

Hemiprocnidae, and Trochilidae), Caprimulgiformes, Nyctibiiformes, Podargiformes, Steatornithiformes. Apodidae and Hemiprocnidae are grouped together as Apodi, Apodi and Trochilidae are grouped together as Apodiformes
, and Apodiformes and Aegotheliformes are grouped together as Daedalornithes.

The classification of the various birds that make up the order has long been controversial and difficult, particularly in the case of the nightjars and the paraphyly of the traditional Caprimulgiformes in relation to "Apodiformes", traditionally considered a separate order.

The IUCN adopts the following classification of Order Caprimulgiformes,[24] which follows recent phylogenetic studies:

The IUCN definition renders the order Caprimulgiformes identical to the clade Strisores. Authorities that favor the use of Strisores for this group (e.g., Yuri et al. 2013

Aegotheliformes)[25] or viewed as a family within Apodiformes.[26]

Traditionally, Caprimulgiformes were regarded, on morphological grounds, as being midway between the

hummingbirds. A close relationship to owls can be rejected since there is strong molecular evidence[27][28] that owls are members of a clade, called Telluraves
, that excludes Caprimulgiformes.

Based on analysis of

hummingbirds
. Metaves was also found by the expanded study of Ericson et al. (2006), but support for the clade was extremely weak.

While only the latter study recovered monophyly of the

genes independently support their monophyly either in majority or whole. Ericson et al. (2006) concluded that if valid, the "Metaves" must originate quite some time before the Paleogene
, and they reconciled this with the fossil record.

While the relationships of cypselomorphs are a subject of ongoing debate, the

phylogeny
of the individual lineages is better resolved. Much of the remaining uncertainty regards minor details.

Initial

DNA-DNA hybridization studies insofar as that the oilbird and the frogmouths seemed rather distinct. The other lineages appeared to form a clade
, but this is now known to have been caused by methodological limitations.

The Aegothelidae (

Cypselomorphae
. The oilbird and the frogmouths seem quite distinct among the remaining Caprimulgiformes, but their exact placement cannot be resolved based on osteological data alone.

Even the study of Ericson et al. could not properly resolve the oilbird's and frogmouths' relationships beyond the fact that they are quite certainly well distinct. It robustly supported, however, the idea that the owlet-nightjars should be considered closer to Caprimulgiformes, unlike the methodologically weaker studies of Mariaux & Braun (1996) and Fain and Houde (2004).

Alternatively, Mayr's

plesiomorphic and some extremely derived lineages (such as hummingbirds) to achieve monophyly. Reddy et al. (2017)[29]
included hummingbirds and swifts in Caprimulgiformes, preserving the monophyly of the order.

The following cladogram follows the results of Mayr's (2002) phylogenetic study, which used a parsimony analysis of 25 morphological characters:

Steatornithidae

Podargidae

Caprimulgidae

Nyctibiidae

Aegothelidae

Trochilidae

Hemiprocnidae

Apodidae

Subsequent molecular work has converged on two alternative topologies (topologies 1 and 2 below) that differ in the placement of the root.[30] Although Braun et al. (2019)[30] suggested that topology 1 was favored in large-scale analyses of non-coding data were analyzed and that topology 2 was favored in large-scale analyses of coding data (e.g., Prum et al. (2015)[31]) subsequent analyses of datasets with many non-coding loci[23][32] have also recovered topology 2. Thus, topology 2 should be viewed as the best-corroborated hypothesis at this time.

Topology 1: phylogeny according to Reddy et al. (2017),[29] which analyzed 54 nuclear loci (mostly introns):

Caprimulgiformes

Steatornithidae

Nyctibiidae

Caprimulgidae

Podargidae

Daedalornithes

Aegothelidae

Hemiprocnidae

Apodidae

Trochilidae

Topology 2: phylogeny according to Prum et al. (2015)[31] (259 "anchored hybrid enrichment" loci, which are mostly coding exons), Chen et al. (2019)[23] (combined analysis of 2289 ultra-conserved elements [UCEs] and 117 morphological characters and including fossil taxa), and White and Braun (2019)[32] (based on analyses of multiple UCE datasets, ranging in size from 2289 to 4243 loci):

Caprimulgiformes

Caprimulgidae

Vanescaves

Steatornithidae

Nyctibiidae

Podargidae

Daedalornithes

Aegothelidae

Hemiprocnidae

Apodidae

Trochilidae

Cladogram based on Prum et al.,[18] with phylogenetic definitions following Chen et al.:[22]

Strisores
Caprimulgiformes

Caprimulgidae
(Nightjars)

sensu stricto
Vanescaves
Steatornithiformes

Steatornithidae (oilbird
)

Nyctibiiformes

potoos
)

Podargiformes

Podargidae
(frogmouths)

Daedalornithes
Aegotheliformes

Aegothelidae
(owlet-nightjars)

Apodiformes

Hemiprocnidae
(treeswifts)

Apodidae
(swifts)

Trochilidae
(hummingbirds)

Cladogram based on Reddy, S. et al. (2017):[19]

Caprimulgiformes

Steatornithidae (oilbird
)

potoos
)

Caprimulgidae
(Nightjars)

Podargidae
(frogmouths)

Daedalornithes

Aegothelidae
(owlet-nightjars)

Hemiprocnidae
(treeswifts)

Apodidae
(swifts)

Trochilidae
(hummingbirds)

sensu lato

Chen et al. (2019)[23] proposed the name Vanescaves for the clade comprising all Caprimulgiformes (=Strisores) except Caprimulgidae. White and Braun (2019)[32] acknowledged that some uncertainty remains; specifically, monophyly of the clade comprising Steatornithidae and Nyctibiidae was limited and that three different resolutions of Steatornithidae, Nyctibiidae, and the clade comprising Podargidae and Daedalornithes remain plausible. However, they viewed topology 2 as the best-supported hypothesis.[citation needed]

Presently, the taxonomy favored by the IOC splits oilbirds, potoos, nightjars, and frogmouths into their own orders, along with the order Apodiformes as previously defined.[33]

References

  1. ^ a b Ksepka, D. T.; Clarke, J. A.; Nesbitt, S. J.; Kulp, F. B.; Grande, L. (2013). "Fossil evidence of wing shape in a stem relative of swifts and hummingbirds (Aves, Pan-Apodiformes)". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 280 (1761): 20130580. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.0580
  2. PMID 32781465
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  3. ^ Whitney, William Dwight (1896), The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language, vol. VII, New York: The Century Co., p. 5996
  4. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.799.1.1
    .
  5. ^ Cabanis, Jean (1847). "Ornithologische Notizen. II". Archiv für Naturgeschichte (in German). 13 (1). Berlin: 308–352.
  6. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.13607
  7. ^ Baird, Spencer F. (1858), General report on the zoology upon the zoology of the several Pacific railroad routes. Part II. Birds, Reports of explorations and surveys, to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean., vol. IX, Washington, D.C.: A. O. P. Nicholson, p. 128
  8. ^ Cooper, J. G. (1870), Ornithology Of California, vol. 1, Cambridge: Welch, Bigelow, & Co., p. 336
  9. ^ Huxley, Thomas H. (1867). "On the classification of birds; and on the taxonomic value of the modifications of certain of the cranial bones observable in that class". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 1867: 415–472.
  10. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.13560
  11. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.13335
  12. ^ American Ornithologists' Union (1910), A Check-List of North American Birds (3rd ed.), New York: American Ornithologists' Union
  13. ^ American Ornithologists' Union (1931), A Check-List of North American Birds (4th ed.), Lancaster, PA: Lancaster Press
  14. ^ American Ornithologists' Union (1957), Check-List of North American Birds (5th ed.), Baltimore, MD: The Lord Baltimore Press
  15. ^ American Ornithologists' Union (1983), Check-List of North American Birds (6th ed.), Lawrence, KS: Allen Press
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  24. ^ "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
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  26. ^ "ITIS Standard Report Page: Aegothelidae". www.itis.gov. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
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  33. ^ "Taxonomic Updates – IOC World Bird List". Retrieved 29 July 2021.
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