Starling
Starling | |
---|---|
Hildebrandt's starling (Lamprotornis hildebrandti) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Passeriformes |
Suborder: | Passeri |
Family: | Sturnidae Rafinesque, 1815 |
Genera | |
Nearly 30, see text. |
Starlings are small to medium-sized
Starlings have strong feet, their flight is strong and direct, and they are very
Plumage of many species is typically dark with a metallic sheen. Most species nest in holes and lay blue or white eggs.
Starlings have diverse and complex vocalizations and have been known to embed sounds from their surroundings into their own calls, including
Description
Starlings are medium-sized
Less sexual dimorphism is seen in plumage, but with only 25 species showing such differences between the two sexes. The plumage of the starling is often brightly coloured due to iridescence; this colour is derived from the structure of the feathers, not from any pigment. Some species of Asian starling have crests or erectile feathers on the crest. Other ornamentation includes elongated tail feathers and brightly coloured bare areas on the face. These colours can be derived from pigments, or as in the Bali myna, structural colour, caused by light scattering off parallel collagen fibers. The irises of many species are red and yellow, although those of younger birds are much darker.[3]
Distribution, habitat and movements
Starlings inhabit a wide range of habitats from the Arctic Circle to the Equator. The only habitats they do not typically occupy are very dry sandy deserts. The family is naturally absent from the Americas and from large parts of Australia, but it is present over the majority of Europe, Africa, and Asia. The genus Aplonis has also spread widely across the islands of the Pacific, reaching Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia[3] (in addition one species in the genus Mino has reached the Solomon Islands[5]). Also, a species of this genus is the only starling found in northern Australia.[3]
Asian species are most common in evergreen forests; 39 species found in Asia are predominantly forest birds as opposed to 24 found in more open or human modified environments. In contrast to this, African species are more likely to be found in open woodlands and savannah; 33 species are open-area specialists compared to 13 true forest species. The high diversity of species found in Asia and Africa is not matched by Europe, which has one widespread (and very common) species and two more restricted species. The
Some species of starlings are migratory, either entirely, like Shelley's starling, which breeds in Ethiopia and Somaliland and migrates to Kenya, Tanzania, and Somalia, or like the white-shouldered starling, which is migratory in part of its range, but is resident in others.[3]
The European starling was purposely introduced to North America in the 1870s through the 1890s by multiple acclimatisation societies, organizations dedicated to introducing European flora and fauna into North America for cultural and economic reasons.[6] A persistent story alleges that Eugene Schieffelin, chairman of the American Acclimatization Society, decided all birds mentioned by William Shakespeare should be in North America, leading to the introduction of the starling to the U.S.; however, this claim is more fiction than fact.[7][6] While Schieffelin and other members of the society did release starlings in Central Park in 1890, the birds had already been in the U.S. since at least the mid-1870s, and Schieffelin was not inspired to do so by Shakespeare's works.[6]
Behaviour
The starlings are generally a highly social family. Most species associate in flocks of varying sizes throughout the year. Murmuration is the
Mimic
Starlings imitate a variety of avian species and have a repertoire of about 15–20 distinct imitations. They also imitate a few sounds other than those of wild birds. The calls of abundant species or calls that are simple in frequency structure and show little amplitude modulation are preferentially imitated. Dialects of mimicked sounds can be local.[3]
Diet and feeding
The diets of the starlings are usually dominated by fruits and insects. Many species are important dispersers of seeds, in Asia and Africa, for example,
Laboratory experiments on European starlings have found that they have disposal enzymes that allow them to break down alcohol very quickly.[9] In addition to consuming fruits, many starlings also consume nectar. The extent to which starlings are important pollinators is unknown, but at least some are, such as the slender-billed starling of alpine East Africa, which pollinates giant lobelias.[3]
Systematics
This section needs to be updated.(December 2019) |
The starling family Sturnidae was introduced (as Sturnidia) by French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815.[10][11] The starlings belong to the
The
Usually, the starlings are considered a family, as is done here. Sibley & Monroe
Starlings probably originated in the general area of
As the fossil record is limited to quite
As of 2007, recent studies
The
Genus sequence follows traditional treatments. This is apparently not entirely correct, with Scissirostrum closer to Aplonis than to Gracula, for example, and Acridotheres among the most advanced genera. Too few taxa have yet been studied as regards their relationships, however, thus a change in the sequence has to wait for further studies.
As of 2023, the review by Lovette & Rubenstein (2008) is the most recent work on the phylogeny of the group.[15] This taxonomy is also based on the order of the IOC.[16]
Oriental-Australasian clade
- Genus extinct)
- Genus Mino
- Yellow-faced myna, Mino dumontii
- Golden myna, Mino anais
- Long-tailed myna, Mino kreffti
- Genus Basilornis
- Sulawesi myna, Basilornis celebensis
- Helmeted myna, Basilornis galeatus
- Long-crested myna, Basilornis corythaix
- Genus Goodfellowia—Apo myna
- Genus Sarcops—Coleto
- Genus Streptocitta
- White-necked myna, Streptocitta albicollis
- Bare-eyed myna, Streptocitta albertinae
- Genus Enodes—fiery-browed myna
- Genus Scissirostrum—finch-billed myna
- Genus Ampeliceps—golden-crested myna
- Genus Gracula—hill mynas (six species)
- Genus Acridotheres—typical mynas (11 species)
- Genus Spodiopsar (2 species)
- Genus Gracupica— 4 species
- Genus Agropsar (sometimes included in Sturnus or Sturnia) (2 species)
- Genus Sturnia (sometimes included in Sturnus)
- White-shouldered starling, Sturnia sinensis
- Chestnut-tailed starling, Sturnia malabarica
- White-headed starling, Sturnia erythropygia
- Malabar starling, Sturnia blythii
- Brahminy starling, Sturnia pagodarum
- Genus Sturnornis—white-faced starling
- Genus Leucopsar—Bali myna
- Genus extinct, 1850s)
- Genus extinct, late 18th century?)
Afrotropical-Palearctic clade
- Genus Pastor— rosy starling
- Genus Sturnus—typical starlings (2 species)
- Common starling, Sturnus vulgaris
- Spotless starling, Sturnus unicolor
- Genus Creatophora—wattled starling
- Genus Notopholia—black-bellied starling
- Genus Hylopsar (2 species)
- Genus Lamprotornis—typical glossy-starlings (23 species; monophyly requires confirmation)
- Cape starling, Lamprotornis nitens
- Greater blue-eared starling, Lamprotornis chalybaeus
- Lesser blue-eared starling, Lamprotornis chloropterus
- Miombo blue-eared starling, Lamprotornis elisabeth
- Bronze-tailed starling, Lamprotornis chalcurus
- Splendid starling, Lamprotornis splendidus
- Principe starling, Lamprotornis ornatus
- Emerald starling, Lamprotornis iris
- Purple starling, Lamprotornis purpureus
- Rüppell's starling, Lamprotornis purpuroptera
- Long-tailed glossy starling, Lamprotornis caudatus
- Golden-breasted starling, Lamprotornis regius
- Meves's starling, Lamprotornis mevesii
- Burchell's starling, Lamprotornis australis
- Sharp-tailed starling, Lamprotornis acuticaudus
- Superb starling, Lamprotornis superbus
- Hildebrandt's starling, Lamprotornis hildebrandti
- Shelley's starling, Lamprotornis shelleyi
- Chestnut-bellied starling, Lamprotornis pulcher
- Ashy starling, Lamprotornis unicolor
- White-crowned starling (Lamprotornis albicapillus)
- Fischer's starling (Lamprotornis fischeri)
- Pied starling (Lamprotornis bicolor)
- Genus Hartlaubius– Madagascar starling
- Genus Cinnyricinclus—violet-backed starling
- Genus Onychognathus
- Red-winged starling, Onychognathus morio
- Slender-billed starling, Onychognathus tenuirostris
- Chestnut-winged starling, Onychognathus fulgidus
- Waller's starling, Onychognathus walleri
- Somali starling, Onychognathus blythii
- Socotra starling, Onychognathus frater
- Tristram's starling, Onychognathus tristramii
- Pale-winged starling, Onychognathus nabouroup
- Bristle-crowned starling, Onychognathus salvadorii
- White-billed starling, Onychognathus albirostris
- Neumann's starling, Onychognathus neumanni
- Genus Poeoptera (3 species)
- Genus Pholia– Sharpe's starling
- Genus Arizelopsar– Abbott's starling
- Genus Saroglossa– spot-winged starling
- Genus Grafisia—white-collared starling
- Genus Speculipastor—magpie starling
- Genus Neocichla—babbling starling
Rhabdornis clade
- Genus Rhabdornis—Philippine creepers (four species)
Unresolved
The
- Genus prehistoric?)
References
- ISSN 0028-8233. (See p.429.)
- ^ Zimmer, Carl (2 May 2006). "Starlings' listening skills may shed light on language evolution". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 January 2009.
- ^ ISBN 978-84-96553-50-7.
- ISBN 978-0713639612.
- ISBN 978-0-7136-4690-0.
- ^ S2CID 243468840. Retrieved November 26, 2021.
- ^ Mirsky, Steve (May 23, 2008). "Shakespeare to blame for introduction of European starlings to U.S". Scientific American. Retrieved November 14, 2012.
- PMID 22361142.
- S2CID 31680169.
- ^ Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel (1815). Analyse de la nature ou, Tableau de l'univers et des corps organisés (in French). Vol. 1815. Palermo: Self-published. p. 68.
- hdl:2246/830.
- ISBN 978-0-300-04969-5.
- ^ PMID 16806992.
- ^ PMID 15186812.
- PMID 18321732.
- ^ a b "Nuthatches, Wallcreeper, treecreepers, mockingbirds, starlings, oxpeckers – IOC World Bird List". Retrieved 2021-07-29.