Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa | |
---|---|
Major cities | Abidjan, Abuja, Accra, Addis Ababa, Cape Town, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Harare, Johannesburg, Juba, Kampala, Kinshasa, Lagos, Luanda, Lusaka, Mogadishu, Nairobi, Pretoria, Windhoek |
Population (2021)[a] | 1,137,938,708 |
Demonyms | African |
Religions (2020) | |
• Christianity | 62.0% |
• Islam | 31.4% |
• Traditional faiths | 3.2% |
• No religion | 3.0% |
• Other | 0.4% |
Languages | Over 1,000 languages |
Internet TLD | .africa |
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Sub-Saharan Africa, Subsahara, or Non-Mediterranean Africa[3] is the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lie south of the Sahara. These include Central Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa, and West Africa. Geopolitically, in addition to the African countries and territories that are situated fully in that specified region, the term may also include polities that only have part of their territory located in that region, per the definition of the United Nations (UN).[4] This is considered a non-standardized geographical region with the number of countries included varying from 46 to 48 depending on the organization describing the region (e.g. UN, WHO, World Bank, etc.). The African Union (AU) uses a different regional breakdown, recognizing all 55 member states on the continent—grouping them into five distinct and standard regions.
The term serves as a grouping counterpart to
Since around 3900 BCE,[7][8] the Saharan and sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been separated by the extremely harsh climate of the sparsely populated Sahara, forming an effective barrier that is interrupted only by the Nile in Sudan, though navigation on the Nile was blocked by the Sudd and the river's cataracts. There is also an evident genetic divide between North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa that dates back to the Neolithic. The Sahara pump theory explains how flora and fauna (including Homo sapiens) left Africa to penetrate Eurasia and beyond. African pluvial periods are associated with a "Wet Sahara" phase, during which larger lakes and more rivers existed.[9]
Nomenclature
Geographers historically divided the region into several distinct ethnographic sections based on each area's respective inhabitants.[10]
Commentators in Arabic in the
The geographers drew an explicit ethnographic distinction between the Sudan region and its analogue Zanj, from the area to their extreme east on the
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the populations south of the Sahara were divided into three broad ancestral groups:
Climate zones and ecoregions
Sub-Saharan Africa has a wide variety of
- The hot semi-arid climate.
- South of the Sahel, a belt of savanna (the West and East Sudanian savannas) stretch from the Atlantic Ocean to the Ethiopian Highlands. The more humid Guinean and Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic lie between the savannas and the equatorial forests.
- The hot semi-arid climate can be found much more in the interior, contrasting with savanna and moist broadleaf forests in the Ethiopian Highlands.
- Tropical Africa encompasses tropical rainforest stretching along the southern coast of West Africa and across most of Central Africa (the Congo) west of the African Great Lakes.
- In East Africa, woodlands, savannas, and grasslands are found in the equatorial zone, including the Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania and Kenya.
- Distinctive Afromontane forests, grasslands, and shrublands are found in the high mountains and mountain ranges of eastern Africa, from the Ethiopian Highlands to South Africa.
- South of the equatorial forests, the .
- The Namib and Kalahari Deserts lie in Southern Africa, and are surrounded by semi-deserts including the Karoo region of South Africa. The Bushveld grasslands lie to the east of the deserts.
- The Cape Floristic Region is at Africa's southern tip, and is home to diverse subtropical and temperate forests, woodlands, grasslands, and shrublands.
History
Prehistory
According to
By 3 million years ago several
Roughly 1.8 million years ago,
The fossil and genetic evidence shows
During the 11th millennium BP, pottery was independently invented in West Africa, with the earliest pottery there dating to about 9,400 BC from central Mali.[26] It spread throughout the Sahel and southern Sahara.[27]
After the Sahara became a desert, it did not present a totally impenetrable barrier for travelers between north and south because of the application of animal husbandry towards carrying water, food, and supplies across the desert. Prior to the introduction of the
West Africa
The Bantu expansion is a major migration movement that originated in West Central Africa (possibly around Cameroon) around 2500 BCE, reaching East and Central Africa by 1000 BCE and Southern Africa by the early centuries CE.
The
In the forest zone, several states and empires such as
In the 18th century, the Oyo and the
Central Africa
Archeological finds in Central Africa provide evidence of human settlement that may date back over 10,000 years.[37] According to Zangato and Holl, there is evidence of iron-smelting in the Central African Republic and Cameroon that may date back to 3,000 to 2,500 BCE.[38] Extensive walled sites and settlements have recently been found in Zilum, Chad. The area is located approximately 60 km (37 mi) southwest of Lake Chad, and has been radiocarbon dated to the first millennium BCE.[39][40]
Trade and improved agricultural techniques supported more sophisticated societies, leading to the early civilizations of
Following the
Rival kingship factions which split from the Luba Kingdom later moved among the Lunda people, marrying into its elite and laying the foundation of the
The Kingdom of Kongo existed from the Atlantic west to the Kwango river to the east. During the 15th century, the Bakongo farming community was united with its capital at M'banza-Kongo, under the king title, Manikongo.[42] Other significant states and peoples included the Kuba Kingdom, producers of the famous raffia cloth, the Eastern Lunda, Bemba, Burundi, Rwanda, and the Kingdom of Ndongo.
East Africa
Sudan
Horn of Africa
The
In
In the Middle Ages several powerful Somali empires dominated the region's trade, including the
Southeast Africa
According to the theory of
On the coastal section of Southeast Africa, a mixed Bantu community developed through contact with
The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the Southeast coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of Rhapta, Azania and Menouthias[54] referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE.[55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62] These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach Southeast Africa during their migration.[63]
Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large medieval Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as the
During the early 1960s, the Southeast African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.
Southern Africa
Settlements of
In 1487,
Demographics
Population
According to the 2022 revision of the World Population Prospects[66][67], the population of sub-Saharan Africa was 1.1 billion in 2019. The current growth rate is 2.3%. The UN predicts for the region a population between 2 and 2.5 billion by 2050[68] with a population density of 80 per km2 compared to 170 for Western Europe, 140 for Asia and 30 for the Americas.
Sub-Saharan African countries top the
Country | Population |
Area (km2) |
Literacy (M/F)[71] | GDP per Capita (PPP)[72] | Trans (Rank/Score)[73] | Life (Exp.)[71] | HDI | EODBR/SAB[74] | PFI (RANK/MARK) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Angola | 18,498,000 | 1,246,700 | 82.9%/54.2% | 6,800 | 168/2 | 42.4 | 0.486 | 172/171 | 132/58,43 |
Burundi | 8,988,091 | 27,830 | 67.3%/52.2% | 700 | 168/1.8 | 49 | 0.316 | 176/130 | 103/29,00 |
Democratic Republic of the Congo | 68,692,542 | 2,345,410 | 80.9%/54.1% | 800 | 162/11.9 | 46.1 | 0.286 | 182/152 | 146/53,50 |
Cameroon | 18,879,301 | 475,440 | 77%/59.8% | 3,700 | 146/2.2 | 50.3 | 0.482 | 171/174 | 109/30,50 |
Central African Republic | 4,511,488 | 622,984 | 64.8%/33.5% | 700 | 158/2.8 | 44.4 | 0.343 | 183/159 | 80/17,75 |
Chad | 10,329,208 | 1,284,000 | 40.8%/12.8% | 2,300 | 175/1.6 | 50.6 | 0.328 | 178/182 | 132/44,50 |
Republic of the Congo | 3,700,000 | 342,000 | 90.5%/79.0% | 800 | 162/1.9 | 54.8 | 0.533 | N/A | 116/34,25 |
Equatorial Guinea | 1,110,000 | 28,051 | 93.4%/80.3% | 37,400 | 168/1.8 | 51.1 | 0.537 | 170/178 | 158/65,50 |
Gabon | 1,514,993 | 267,667 | 88.5%/79.7% | 18,100 | 106/2.9 | 56.7 | 0.674 | 158/152 | 129/43,50 |
Kenya | 39,002,772 | 582,650 | 77.7%/70.2% | 3,500 | 146/2.2 | 57.8 | 0.519 | 95/124 | 96/25,00 |
Nigeria | 174,507,539 | 923,768 | 84.4%/72.7%[75] | 5,900 | 136/2.7 | 57 | 0.504 | 131/120 | 112/34,24 |
Rwanda | 10,473,282 | 26,338 | 71.4%/59.8% | 2,100 | 89/3.3 | 46.8 | 0.429 | 67/11 | 157/64,67 |
São Tomé and Príncipe | 212,679 | 1,001 | 92.2%/77.9% | 3,200 | 111/2.8 | 65.2 | 0.509 | 180/140 | NA |
Tanzania | 44,928,923 | 945,087 | 77.5%/62.2% | 3,200 | 126/2.6 | 51.9 | 0.466 | 131/120 | NA/15,50 |
Uganda | 32,369,558 | 236,040 | 76.8%/57.7% | 2,400 | 130/2.5 | 50.7 | 0.446 | 112/129 | 86/21,50 |
Sudan | 31,894,000 | 1,886,068 | 79.6%/60.8% | 4,300 | 176/1.5 | 62.57[76] | 0.408 | 154/118 | 148/54,00 |
South Sudan | 8,260,490 | 619,745 | 1,600 | ||||||
Djibouti | 516,055 | 23,000 | N/A | 3,600 | 111/2.8 | 54.5 | 0.430 | 163/177 | 110/31,00 |
Eritrea | 5,647,168 | 121,320 | N/A | 1,600 | 126/2.6 | 57.3 | 0.349 | 175/181 | 175/115,50 |
Ethiopia | 85,237,338 | 1,127,127 | 50%/28.8% | 2,200 | 120/2.7 | 52.5 | 0.363 | 107/93 | 140/49,00 |
Somalia | 9,832,017 | 637,657 | N/A | N/A | 180/1.1 | 47.7 | N/A | N/A | 164/77,50 |
Botswana | 1,990,876 | 600,370 | 80.4%/81.8% | 17,000 | 37/5.6 | 49.8 | 0.633 | 45/83 | 62/15,50 |
Comoros | 752,438 | 2,170 | N/A | 1,600 | 143/2.3 | 63.2 | 0.433 | 162/168 | 82/19,00 |
Lesotho | 2,130,819 | 30,355 | 73.7%/90.3% | 3,300 | 89/3.3 | 42.9 | 0.450 | 130/131 | 99/27,50 |
Madagascar | 19,625,000 | 587,041 | 76.5%/65.3% | 1,600 | 99/3.0 | 59 | 0.480 | 134/12 | 134/45,83 |
Malawi | 14,268,711 | 118,480 | N/A | 1,200 | 89/3.3 | 47.6 | 0.400 | 132/128 | 62/15,50 |
Mauritius | 1,284,264 | 2,040 | 88.2%/80.5% | 22,300 | 42/5.4 | 73.2 | 0.728 | 17/10 | 51/14,00 |
Mozambique | 21,669,278 | 801,590 | N/A | 1,300 | 130/2.5 | 42.5 | 0.322 | 135/96 | 82/19,00 |
Namibia | 2,108,665 | 825,418 | 86.8%/83.6% | 11,200 | 56/4.5 | 52.5 | 0.625 | 66/123 | 35/9,00 |
Seychelles | 87,476 | 455 | 91.4%/92.3% | 29,300 | 54/4.8 | 72.2 | 0.773 | 111/81 | 72/16,00 |
South Africa | 59,899,991 | 1,219,912 | N/A | 13,600 | 55/4.7 | 50.7 | 0.619 | 34/67 | 33/8,50 |
Eswatini | 1,123,913 | 17,363 | 80.9%/78.3% | 11,089 | 79/3.6 | 40.8 | 0.608 | 115/158 | 144/52,50 |
Zambia | 11,862,740 | 752,614 | N/A | 4,000 | 99/3.0 | 41.7 | 0.430 | 90/94 | 97/26,75 |
Zimbabwe | 11,392,629 | 390,580 | 92.7%/86.2% | 2,300 | 146/2.2 | 42.7 | 0.376 | 159/155 | 136/46,50 |
Benin | 8,791,832 | 112,620 | 47.9%/42.3% | 2,300 | 106/2.9 | 56.2 | 0.427 | 172/155 | 97/26,75 |
Mali | 12,666,987 | 1,240,000 | 32.7%/15.9% | 2,200 | 111/2.8 | 53.8 | 0.359 | 156/139 | 38/8,00 |
Burkina Faso | 15,730,977 | 274,200 | 25.3% | 1,900 | 79/3.6 | 51 | 0.331 | 150/116 | N/A |
Cape Verde | 499,000 | 322,462 | 7,000 | ||||||
Ivory Coast | 20,617,068 | 322,463 | 3,900 | ||||||
Gambia | 1,782,893 | 11,295 | 2,600 | ||||||
Ghana | 24,200,000 | 238,535 | 4,700 | ||||||
Guinea | 10,057,975 | 245,857 | 2,200 | ||||||
Guinea-Bissau | 1,647,000 | 36,125 | 1,900 | ||||||
Liberia | 4,128,572 | 111,369 | 1,300 | ||||||
Mauritania | 3,359,185 | 1,030,700 | 4,500 | ||||||
Niger | 17,129,076 | 1,267,000 | 1,200 | ||||||
Senegal | 12,855,153 | 196,712 | 3,500 | ||||||
Sierra Leone | 6,190,280 | 71,740 | 1,600 | ||||||
Togo | 7,154,237 | 56,785 | 1,700 |
GDP per Capita (PPP) (2016, 2017 (PPP, US$)), Life (Exp.) (Life Expectancy 2006), Literacy (Male/Female 2006), Trans (Transparency 2009), HDI (Human Development Index), EODBR (Ease of Doing Business Rank June 2008 through May 2009), SAB (Starting a Business June 2008 through May 2009), PFI (Press Freedom Index 2009)
Languages and ethnic groups
Sub-Saharan Africa contains over 1,500 languages.
Afroasiatic
With the exception of the extinct Sumerian (a language isolate) of Mesopotamia, Afroasiatic has the oldest documented history of any language family in the world. Egyptian was recorded as early as 3200 BCE. The Semitic branch was recorded as early as 2900 BCE in the form of the Akkadian language of Mesopotamia (Assyria and Babylonia) and circa 2500 BCE in the form of the Eblaite language of northeastern Syria.[77]
The distribution of the Afroasiatic languages within Africa is principally concentrated in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Languages belonging to the family's Berber branch are mainly spoken in the north, with its speech area extending into the Sahel (northern Mauritania, northern Mali, northern Niger).[78][79] The Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic is centered in the Horn, and is also spoken in the Nile Valley and parts of the African Great Lakes region. Additionally, the Semitic branch of the family, in the form of Arabic, is widely spoken in the parts of Africa that are within the Arab world. South Semitic languages are also spoken in parts of the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea). The Chadic branch is distributed in Central and West Africa.[80] Hausa, its most widely spoken language, serves as a lingua franca in West Africa (Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Cameroon, and Chad).[81]
Khoisan
The several families lumped under the term
.Niger–Congo
The
Nilo-Saharan
The
Major languages of Africa by region, family and number of
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Genetic history
Major cities
Sub-Saharan Africa has several large cities.
Dar es Salaam is the former capital of, as well as the most populous city in, Tanzania; it is a regionally important economic centre.[131] It is located on the Swahili coast.
Johannesburg is the largest city in South Africa. It is the provincial capital and largest city in Gauteng, which is the wealthiest province in South Africa.[132] While Johannesburg is not one of South Africa's three capital cities, it is the seat of the Constitutional Court. The city is located in the mineral-rich Witwatersrand range of hills, and is the centre of a large-scale gold and diamond trade.
Nairobi is the capital and the largest city of Kenya. The name comes from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nyrobi, which translates to "cool water", a reference to the Nairobi River which flows through the city. The city is popularly referred to as the Green City in the Sun.[133]
Other major cities in sub-Saharan Africa include Abidjan, Cape Town, Kinshasa, Luanda, Mogadishu and Addis Ababa.
Largest cities or towns in Sub Saharan Africa
worldpopulationreview.com 2022 City Population estimates. | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Pop. | Rank | Pop. | ||||||
1 | Lagos | 21,320,000 | 11 | Yaounde |
4,336,670 | ||||
2 | Kinshasa | 17,071,000 | 12 | Kano | 4,219,209 | ||||
3 | Johannesburg | 11,061,878 | 13 | Douala | 3,926,645 | ||||
4 | Luanda | 8,952,496 | 14 | Ibadan | 3,756,445 | ||||
5 | Dar Es Salaam |
7,404,689 | 15 | Antananarivo | 3,669,900 | ||||
6 | Khartoum | 6,160,327 | 16 | Abuja | 3,652,029 | ||||
7 | Abidjan | 5,515,794 | 17 | Kampala | 3,651,919 | ||||
8 | Addis Ababa | 5,227,794 | 18 | Kumasi | 3,630,326 | ||||
9 | Nairobi | 5,118,844 | 19 | Dakar | 3,326,001 | ||||
10 | Cape Town | 4,800,954 | 20 | Port Harcourt | 3,324,694 |
Economy
This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: The most recent data in this section seems to be from 2015.(April 2021) |
In the mid-2010s, private capital flows to sub-Saharan Africa – primarily from the BRICs, private-sector investment portfolios, and remittances – began to exceed official development assistance.[134]
As of 2011, Africa is one of the fastest developing regions in the world. Six of the world's ten fastest-growing economies over the previous decade were situated below the Sahara, with the remaining four in East and Central Asia. According to the World Bank, the economic growth rate in the region had risen to 4.7% in 2013. This continued rise was attributed to increasing investment in infrastructure and resources as well as steady expenditure per household.[135]
424 million people in sub-Saharan Africa were reportedly living in severe poverty in 2019. In 2022, 460 million people—an increase of 36 million in only three years—were anticipated to be living in extreme poverty as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[136][137][138] Sub-Saharan Africa's government debt rose from 28% of gross domestic product in 2012 to 50% of gross domestic product in 2019. The COVID-19 pandemic caused it to rise to 57% of gross domestic product in 2021.[139][140][141]
Sub-Saharan Africa was severely harmed when government revenue declined from 22% of GDP in 2011 to 17% in 2021. 15 African nations are at significant risk of debt, and 7 are currently in financial crisis according to the IMF.[142][143][144] The region went on to receive IMF Special Drawing Rights of $23 billion in 2021 to assist critical public spending.[145]
As of 2023, women make up 29% of Sub-Saharan Africa's workforce, and 33% of enterprises are managed by women, suggesting a considerable gender disparity.[146]
Energy and power
Rank | Area | bb/day | Year | Like... |
---|---|---|---|---|
_ | W: World | 85,540,000 | 2007 est. | |
01 | E: Russia | 9,980,000 | 2007 est. | |
02 | Ar: Saudi Arb | 9,200,000 | 2008 est. | |
04 | As: Libya | 4,725,000 | 2008 est. | Iran |
10 | Af: Nigeria | 2,352,000 | 2011 est. | Norway |
15 | Af: Algeria | 2,173,000 | 2007 est. | |
16 | Af: Angola | 1,910,000 | 2008 est. | |
17 | Af: Egypt | 1,845,000 | 2007 est. | |
27 | Af: Tunisia | 664,000 | 2007 est. | Australia |
31 | Af: Sudan | 466,100 | 2007 est. | Ecuador |
33 | Af: Eq.Guinea | 368,500 | 2007 est. | Vietnam |
38 | Af: DR Congo | 261,000 | 2008 est. | |
39 | Af: Gabon | 243,900 | 2007 est. | |
40 | Af: Sth Africa | 199,100 | 2007 est. | |
45 | Af: Chad | 156,000 | 2008 est. | Germany |
53 | Af: Cameroon | 87,400 | 2008 est. | France |
56 | E: France | 71,400 | 2007 | |
60 | Af: Ivory Coast | 54,400 | 2008 est. | |
_ | Af: Africa | 10,780,400 | 2011 | Russia |
Source: CIA.gov Archived 12 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine, World Facts Book > Oil exporters. |
As of 2009[update], 50% of Africa was rural with no access to electricity. In 2021, Africa generated 889 TWh of electricity, amounting to 3.13% of the global market share.[147] Many countries are affected by power shortages.[148]
The percentage of residences with access to electricity in sub-Saharan Africa is the lowest in the world. In some remote regions, fewer than one in every 20 households has electricity.[149][150][151]
Because of rising prices in commodities such as coal and oil, thermal sources of energy are proving to be too expensive for power generation. Sub-Saharan Africa has the potential to generate 1,750 TWh of energy, of which only 7% has been explored. The failure to exploit its full energy potential is largely due to significant underinvestment, as at least four times as much (approximately $23 billion a year) and what is currently spent is invested in operating high cost power systems and not on expanding the infrastructure.[152]
African governments are taking advantage of the readily available water resources to broaden their energy mix. Hydro Turbine Markets in sub-Saharan Africa generated revenues of $120.0 million in 2007 and is estimated to reach $425.0 million.[when?] Asian countries, notably China, India, and Japan, are playing an active role in power projects across the African continent. The majority of these power projects are hydro-based because of China's vast experience in the construction of hydro-power projects and part of the Energy & Power Growth Partnership Services programme.[153]
With electrification numbers, sub-Saharan Africa with access to the Sahara and being in the tropical zones has massive potential for solar
The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) is developing an integrated, continent-wide energy strategy. This has been funded by, amongst others, the African Development Bank (AfDB) and the EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund. These projects must be sustainable, involve a cross-border dimension and/or have a regional impact, involve public and private capital, contribute to poverty alleviation and economic development, and involve at least one country in sub-Saharan Africa.[152]
Renewable Energy Performance Platform was established by the European Investment Bank and the United Nations Environment Programme with a five-year goal of improving energy access for at least two million people in sub-Saharan Africa. It has so far invested around $45 million to renewable energy projects in 13 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Solar power and hydropower are among the energy methods used in the projects.[149][157]
Media
Radio is the major source of information in sub-Saharan Africa.[158] Average coverage stands at more than a third of the population. Countries such as Gabon, Seychelles, and South Africa boast almost 100% penetration. Only five countries—Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia—still have a penetration of less than 10%. Broadband penetration outside of South Africa has been limited where it is exorbitantly expensive.[159][160] Access to the internet via cell phones is on the rise.[161]
Television is the second major source of information.[158] Because of power shortages, the spread of television viewing has been limited. Eight per cent have television, a total of 62 million. Those in the television industry view the region as an untapped green market. Digital television and pay for service are on the rise.[162]
Oil and minerals
The region is a major exporter to the world of
Sub-Saharan Africa has been the focus of an intense race for oil by the West, China, India, and other emerging economies, even though it holds only 10% of proven oil reserves, less than the Middle East. This race has been referred to as the second Scramble for Africa. All reasons for this global scramble come from the reserves' economic benefits. Transportation cost is low and no pipelines have to be laid as in Central Asia. Almost all reserves are offshore, so political turmoil within the host country will not directly interfere with operations. Sub-Saharan oil is viscous, with a very low sulfur content. This quickens the refining process and effectively reduces costs. New sources of oil are being located in sub-Saharan Africa more frequently than anywhere else. Of all new sources of oil, 1⁄3 are in sub-Saharan Africa.[171]
Agriculture
Sub-Saharan Africa has more variety of grains than anywhere in the world. Between 13,000 and 11,000 BCE wild grains began to be collected as a source of food in the cataract region of the Nile, south of Egypt. The collecting of wild grains as source of food spread to Syria, parts of Turkey, and Iran by the eleventh millennium BCE. By the tenth and ninth millennia southwest Asians domesticated their wild grains, wheat, and barley after the notion of collecting wild grains spread from the Nile.[172]
Numerous crops have been domesticated in the region and spread to other parts of the world. These crops included
Domesticated animals include the
Agriculture represents 20% to 30% of GDP and 50% of exports. In some cases, 60% to 90% of the labor force are employed in agriculture.
Cash crops include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar, and tobacco.[177]
The OECD says Africa has the potential to become an agricultural superbloc if it can unlock the wealth of the savannahs by allowing farmers to use their land as collateral for credit.[178] There is such international interest in sub-Saharan agriculture, that the World Bank increased its financing of African agricultural programs to $1.3 billion in the 2011 fiscal year.[179] Recently, there has been a trend to purchase large tracts of land in sub-Sahara for agricultural use by developing countries.[180][181] Early in 2009, George Soros highlighted a new farmland buying frenzy caused by growing population, scarce water supplies and climate change. Chinese interests bought up large swathes of Senegal to supply it with sesame. Aggressive moves by China, South Korea, and Gulf states to buy vast tracts of agricultural land in sub-Saharan Africa could soon be limited by a new global international protocol.[182]
Infrastructure
According to researchers at the
Infrastructure investments contributed to Africa's growth, and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty.[152][180][181] The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average 30–40% returns for telecommunications (ICT) investments, over 40% for electricity generation and 80% for roads.[152]
In Africa, it is argued that in order to meet the MDGs, infrastructure investments would need to reach about 15% of GDP (around $93 billion a year).
Transport
Less than 40% of rural Africans live within two kilometers of an all-season road, the lowest level of rural accessibility in the developing world. Spending on roads averages just below 2% of GDP with varying degree among countries. This compares with 1% of GDP that is typical in industrialised countries, and 2–3% of GDP found in fast-growing emerging economies. Although the level of expenditure is high relative to the size of Africa's economies, it remains small in absolute terms, with low-income countries spending an average of about US$7 per capita per year.[183]
Education
Forty per cent of African scientists live in
According to the CIA, low global literacy rates are concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa, West Asia and South Asia. However, literacy rates in sub-Saharan Africa vary significantly between countries. The highest registered literacy rate in the region is in Zimbabwe (90.7%; 2003 est.), while the lowest literacy rate is in South Sudan (27%).[187]
Research on human capital formation was able to determine, that the numeracy levels of sub-Saharan Africa and Africa, in general, were higher than numeracy levels in South Asia. In the 1940s more than 75% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa was numerate. The numeracy of the West African countries, Benin and Ghana, was even higher with more than 80% of the population being numerate. In contrast, numeracy in South Asia was only around 50%.[188]
Higher diversity in Sub-Saharan African countries has been found to lead to a poorer economy. Researchers have argued that this is because of ethnic favoritism in their politics. Sub-Saharan leaders are more likely to provide better resources to their coethnic groups when in power. A study found that, on average, children of the favored ethnic group are 2.25% more likely to attend primary school and 1.80% more likely to complete primary school. A 1% increase in GDP is associated with a 1.5% increase in the ethnic favoritism effect on primary school attendance.[189]
Sub-Saharan African countries spent an average of 0.3% of their GDP on science and technology in 2007. This represents an increase from US$1.8 billion in 2002 to US$2.8 billion in 2007, a 50% increase in spending.[190][191]
Major progress in access to education
At the World Conference held in
In the years immediately after the Dakar Forum, the efforts made by the African States towards achieving
Literacy rates have gone up in sub-Saharan Africa, and internet access has improved considerably. At least 39 countries in sub-Saharan Africa have some large-scale school feeding programs, which can improve access to education. In aggregate, 16% of school-age children (and 25% of primary school-age children) in the region benefit from school meal programs, and about 82% of the funding for these programs is provided by governments.[194] Nonetheless, a lot must yet happen for this region to catch up. The statistics show that the literacy rate for sub-Saharan Africa was 65% in 2017. In other words, one-third of the people aged 15 and above were unable to read and write. The comparative figure for 1984 was an illiteracy rate of 49%. In 2017, only about 22% of Africans were internet users at all, according to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).[195]
Science and technology
Health
In 1987, the
In 2011, sub-Saharan Africa was home to 69% of all people living with HIV/AIDS worldwide.[200] In response, a number of initiatives have been launched to educate the public on HIV/AIDS. Among these are combination prevention programmes, considered to be the most effective initiative, the abstinence, be faithful, use a condom campaign, and the Desmond Tutu HIV Foundation's outreach programs.[201] According to a 2013 special report issued by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), the number of HIV positive people in Africa receiving anti-retro viral treatment in 2012 was over seven times the number receiving treatment in 2005, with an almost 1 million added in the last year alone.[202][203]: 15 The number of AIDS-related deaths in sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 33 per cent less than the number in 2005.[204] The number of new HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 25 per cent less than the number in 2001.[204]
National health systems vary between countries. In
Religion
African countries below the Sahara are largely
Generally, traditional African religions are united by an ancient complex
Traditional religions in sub-Saharan Africa often display complex ontology, cosmology and metaphysics. Mythologies, for example, demonstrated the difficulty fathers of creation had in bringing about order from chaos. Order is what is right and natural and any deviation is chaos. Cosmology and ontology is also neither simple or linear. It defines duality, the material and immaterial, male and female, heaven and earth. Common principles of being and becoming are widespread: Among the Dogon, the principle of Amma (being) and Nummo (becoming), and among the Bambara, Pemba (being) and Faro (becoming).[225]
- West Africa
- Akan mythology
- Ashanti mythology(Ghana)
- Dahomey (Fon) mythology
- Efik mythology (Nigeria, Cameroon)
- Igbo mythology(Nigeria)
- Serer religion and Serer creation myth (Senegal, Gambia and Mauritania)
- Yoruba mythology(Nigeria, Benin)
- Central Africa
- Dinka mythology(South Sudan)
- Lotuko mythology(South Sudan)
- Bushongo mythology(Congo)
- Bambuti (Pygmy) mythology(Congo)
- Lugbara mythology (Congo)
- Southeast Africa
- Akamba mythology(eastern Kenya)
- Masai mythology(Kenya, Tanzania)
- Southern Africa
- Khoisan religion
- Lozi mythology (Zambia)
- Tumbuka mythology (Malawi)
- Zulu mythology(South Africa)
Sub-Saharan traditional divination systems display great sophistication. For example, the bamana sand divination uses well established symbolic codes that can be reproduced using four bits or marks. A binary system of one or two marks are combined. Random outcomes are generated using a fractal recursive process. It is analogous to a digital circuit but can be reproduced on any surface with one or two marks. This system is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.[226][page needed]
Culture
Sub-Saharan Africa is diverse, with many communities, villages, and cities, each with their own beliefs and traditions. Traditional African Societies are communal, they believe that the needs of the many far outweigh an individual's needs and achievements. Essentially, an individual's keep must be shared with other extended family members. Extended families are made up of various individuals and families who have shared responsibilities within the community. This extended family is one of the core aspects of every African community. "An African will refer to an older person as auntie or uncle. Siblings of parents will be called father or mother rather than uncle and aunt. Cousins will be called brother or sister". This system can be very difficult for outsiders to understand; however, it is no less important. "Also reflecting their communal ethic, Africans are reluctant to stand out in a crowd or to appear different from their neighbors or colleagues, a result of social pressure to avoid offense to group standards and traditions." Women also have a very important role in African culture because they take care of the house and children. Traditionally, in many cultures "men do the heavy work of clearing and ploughing the land, women sow the seeds, tend the fields, harvest the crops, haul the water, and bear the major burden for growing the family's food". Despite their work in the fields, women are expected to be subservient to men in some African cultures. "When young women migrate to cities, this imbalance between the sexes, as well as financial need, often causes young women of lower economic status, who lack education and job training, to have sexual relationships with older men who are established in their work or profession and can afford to support a girlfriend or two".[227]
Art
The oldest abstract art in the world is a shell necklace, dated to 82,000 years, in the Cave of Pigeons in Taforalt, eastern Morocco.[228] The second-oldest abstract form of art, and the oldest rock art, is found in the Blombos Cave at the Cape in South Africa, dated 77,000 years.[229] Sub-Saharan Africa has some of the oldest and most varied style of rock art in the world.[230]
Although sub-Saharan African art is very diverse, there are some common themes. One is the use of the human figure. Second, there is a preference for
The visual abstraction of African art was very influential in the works of
Architecture
Music
Traditional sub-Saharan African music is as diverse as the region's various populations. The common perception of sub-Saharan African music is that it is rhythmic music centered around the drums. This is partially true. A large part of sub-Saharan music, mainly among speakers of
Some forms of sub-Saharan African music use strings, horns, and very little poly-rhythms. Music from the eastern Sahel and along the Nile, among the
Modern sub-Saharan African music has been influenced by music from the New World (Jazz, Salsa, Rhythm and Blues etc.) vice versa being influenced by enslaved sub-Saharan Africans. Popular styles are
. New World styles like Salsa, R&B/Rap, Reggae, and Zouk also have widespread popularity.Cuisine
Sub-Saharan African cuisine is very diverse. A lot of regional overlapping occurs, but there are dominant elements region by region.[235]
West African cuisine can be described as starchy, flavorfully spicey. Dishes include
Southeast African cuisine, especially those of the Swahili people, reflects its Islamic, geographical Indian Ocean cultural links. Dishes include
, but is rarely eaten since meat is viewed as a luxury.In the
Central African cuisine connects with all major regions of sub-Saharan Africa: Its cuisine reflects that.
Traditional Southern African cuisine surrounds meat. Traditional society typically focused on raising sheep, goats, and especially cattle. Dishes include
(sugar syrup cookie).Clothing
Like most of the world, sub-Saharan Africans have adopted Western-style clothing. In some countries like Zambia, used Western clothing has flooded markets, causing great angst in the retail community. Sub-Saharan Africa boasts its own traditional clothing style. Cotton seems to be the dominant material.
In East Africa, one finds extensive use of cotton clothing. Shemma, shama, and
In West Africa, again cotton is the material of choice. In the Sahel and other parts of West Africa the
In Central Africa, the Kuba people developed raffia cloth[238] from the raffia plant fibers. It was widely used in the region. Barkcloth was also extensively used.
In Southern Africa one finds numerous uses of animal hide and skins for clothing. The Ndau in central Mozambique and the Shona mix hide with barkcloth and cotton cloth. Cotton cloth is referred to as machira. Xhosa, Tswana, Sotho, and Swazi also made extensive use of hides. Hides come from cattle, sheep, goat, and elephant. Leopard skins were coveted and were a symbol of kingship in Zulu society. Skins were tanned to form leather, dyed, and embedded with beads.
Theater
Film industry
Games
Sports
Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan men are its main patrons. Major competitions include the African Champions League, a competition for the best clubs on the continent and the Confederation Cup, a competition primarily for the national cup winner of each African country. The Africa Cup of Nations is a competition of 16 national teams from various African countries held every two years. South Africa hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup, a first for a sub-Saharan country. In 2010, Cameroon played in the World Cup for the sixth time, which is the current record for a sub-Saharan team. In 1996 Nigeria won the Olympic gold for football. In 2000 Cameroon maintained the continent's supremacy by winning the title too. Momentous achievements for sub-Saharan African football. Famous sub-Saharan football stars include Abedi Pele, Emmanuel Adebayor, George Weah, Michael Essien, Didier Drogba, Roger Milla, Nwankwo Kanu, Jay-Jay Okocha, Bruce Grobbelaar, Samuel Eto'o, Kolo Touré, Yaya Touré, Sadio Mané and Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang. The most talented sub-Saharan African football players find themselves courted and sought after by European leagues. There are currently more than 1000 Africans playing for European clubs. Sub-Saharan Africans have found themselves the target of racism by European fans. FIFA has been trying hard to crack down on racist outburst during games.[239][240][241]
Boxing is a popular sport.
Cricket has a following. The
Over the years, Ethiopia and Kenya have produced many notable long-distance athletes. Each country has federations that identify and cultivate top talent. Athletes from Ethiopia and Kenya hold, save for two exceptions, all the men's outdoor records for Olympic distance events from 800m to the marathon.[242] Famous runners include Haile Gebrselassie, Kenenisa Bekele, Paul Tergat, and John Cheruiyot Korir.[243]
Tourism
The development of tourism in this region has been identified as having the ability to create jobs and improve the economy. South Africa, Namibia, Mauritius, Botswana, Ghana, Cape Verde, Tanzania and Kenya have been identified as having well developed tourism industries.[244] Cape Town and the surrounding area is very popular with tourists.[245]
List of countries and regional organisation
Only six African countries are not geopolitically a part of sub-Saharan Africa:
Central Africa
- South Sudan[101][252] cap. Juba cur. South Sudanese pound (£) lang. English
- Angola (also in SADC) cap. Luanda cur. Angolan kwanza (Kz) lang. Portuguese
- Burundi (also in EAC) cap. Gitega (former Bujumbura) cur. Burundian franc (FBu) lang. French
- Democratic Republic of the Congo (also in SADC) cap. Kinshasa cur. Congolese franc (FC) lang. French
- Rwanda (also in EAC) cap. Kigali cur. Rwandan franc (RF) lang. Kinyarwanda, French, English
- São Tomé and Príncipe cap. São Tomé cur. São Tomé and Príncipe dobra (Db) lang. Portuguese
- CEMAC (Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa)
- Cameroon cap. Yaoundé cur. Central African CFA franc (FCFA) lang. English, French
- Central African Republic cap. Bangui cur. Central African CFA franc (FCFA) lang. Sango, French
- Chad cap. N'Djamena cur. Central African CFA franc (FCFA) lang. French, Arabic
- Republic of the Congo cap. Brazzaville cur. Central African CFA franc (FCFA) lang. French
- Equatorial Guinea cap. Malabo cur. Central African CFA franc (FCFA) lang. Spanish, French
- Gabon cap. Libreville cur. Central African CFA franc (FCFA) lang. French
East Africa
- Sudan cap. Khartoum cur. Sudanese pound (£S.) lang. Arabic (Sudanese Arabic) and English
- South Sudan cap. Juba cur. South Sudanese pound (£) lang. English and Arabic (Juba Arabic)
- Somalia cap. Mogadishu cur. Somali shilling (So.Sh /-) lang. Somali, Arabic (official)
- Kenya cap. Nairobi cur. Kenyan shilling (KSh /=) lang. Swahili, English
- Uganda cap. Kampala cur. Ugandan shilling (USh /=) lang. Swahili, English
- Rwanda (also in ECCAS) cap. Kigali cur. Rwandan franc (RF) lang. Kinyarwanda, French, English
- Tanzania (also in SADC) cap. Dodoma cur. Tanzanian shilling (TSh /=) lang. Swahili, English
- Burundi (also in ECCAS) cap. Gitega (former Bujumbura) cur. Burundian franc (FBu) lang. Kirundi, French
- Eritrea cap. Asmara cur. Eritrean nakfa (Nfk) 'lang.' Tigrinya, Arabic, Italian, English (unofficial, lingua franca)
- Arabic, French(official)
Northeast Africa
- Horn of Africa
- Sudan & South Sudan
- Sudan cap. Khartoum cur. Sudanese pound (£Sd.) lang. Arabic (Sudanese Arabic) and English
- South Sudan cap. Juba cur. South Sudanese pound (£) lang. English and Arabic (Juba Arabic)
Southeast Africa
- EAC
- Burundi (also in ECCAS) cap. Gitega (former Bujumbura) cur. Burundian franc (FBu) lang. Kirundi, French
- Kenya cap. Nairobi cur. Kenyan shilling (KSh /=) lang. Swahili, English
- Rwanda (also in ECCAS) cap. Kigali cur. Rwandan franc (RF) lang. Kinyarwanda, French, English
- Tanzania (also in SADC) cap. Dodoma cur. Tanzanian shilling (TSh. /=) lang. Swahili, English
- Uganda cap. Kampala cur. Ugandan shilling (USh /=) lang. Swahili, English
Southern Africa
- SADC (Southern African Development Community)
- Angola (also in ECCAS) cap. Luanda cur. Angolan kwanza (Kz) lang. Portuguese
- Botswana cap. Gaborone cur. Botswana pula (P) lang. Tswana, English
- Comorian, Arabic, French
- SiSwati, English
- Sesotho, English
- Madagascar cap. Antananarivo cur. Malagasy ariary (Ar.) lang. Malagasy, French
- Malawi cap. Lilongwe cur. Malawian kwacha (MK) lang. English
- Mauritius cap. Port Louis cur. Mauritian rupee (Re/Rs /-) lang. English
- Mozambique cap. Maputo cur. Mozambican metical (MTn) lang. Portuguese
- Namibia cap. Windhoek cur. Namibian dollar (N$) lang. English
- Seychelles cap. Victoria cur. Seychellois rupee (Re/Rs /-) lang. Seychellois Creole, English, French
- South Africa cap. Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Pretoria cur. South African rand (R) lang. 11 official languages
- Zambia cap. Lusaka cur. Zambian kwacha (ZK) lang. English
- Zimbabwe cap. Harare cur. Zimbabwean dollar ($) lang. English
Sudan
Depending on classification Sudan is often not considered part of sub-Saharan Africa, as it is considered part of North Africa.
- Sudan cap. Khartoum cur. Sudanese pound (SDG) lang. Arabic and English
West Africa
- ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States)
- Ivory Coast cap. Yamoussoukro, Abidjan cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- The Gambia cap. Banjul cur. Gambian dalasi (D)
- Ghana cap. Accra cur. Ghanaian cedi (GH₵)
- Guinea cap. Conakry cur. Guinean franc (FG)
- Liberia cap. Monrovia cur. Liberian dollar (L$)
- Mauritania cap. Nouakchott cur. Mauritanian ouguiya (UM) (sometimes, like Sudan, considered part of North Africa)
- Nigeria cap. Abuja cur. Nigerian naira (₦)
- Sierra Leone cap. Freetown cur. Sierra Leonean leone (Le)
- UEMOA (West African Economic and Monetary Union)
- Benin cap. Porto-Novo cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Burkina Faso cap. Ouagadougou cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Ivory Coast cap. Yamoussoukro, Abidjan cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Guinea-Bissau cap. Bissau cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Mali cap. Bamako cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Niger cap. Niamey cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Senegal cap. Dakar cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
- Togo cap. Lomé cur. West African CFA franc (CFA)
See also
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This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA (license statement/permission). Text taken from Digital Services for Education in Africa, Agence Française de Développement, Agence universitaire de la Francophonie, Orange & UNESCO, Agence Française de Développement & UNESCO.
Further reading
- Chido, Diane E. "From Chaos to Cohesion: A Regional Approach to Security, Stability, and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa". Carlisle, Pa.: Strategic Studies Institute and U.S. Army War College Press, 2013.
External links
- African People website (archived)
- The Story of Africa – BBC World Service