Sudeten Germans
Sudetendeutsche | |
---|---|
Protestant minority | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Germans, Austrians and Czechs |
German Bohemians (
The process of German expansion was known as .
After the
The area that became known as the Sudetenland possessed chemical works and
Not all ethnic Germans lived in isolated and well-defined areas; for historical reasons, Czechs and Germans mixed in many places, and Czech-German bilingualism and code-switching was quite common. Nevertheless, during the second half of the 19th century, Czechs and Germans began to create separate cultural, educational, political and economic institutions, which kept both groups semi-isolated from each other, which continued until the end of the Second World War, when almost all the ethnic Germans were expelled.
Names
In the English language, ethnic Germans who originated in the Kingdom of Bohemia were traditionally referred to as "German Bohemians".[5][6] This appellation utilizes the broad definition of Bohemia, which includes all of the three Bohemian crown lands: Bohemia, Moravia and (Austrian) Silesia.[7] In the German language, it is more common to distinguish among the three lands, hence the prominent terms Deutschböhmen (German Bohemians), Deutschmährer (German Moravians) and Deutschschlesier (German Silesians).[8] Even in German the broader use of "Bohemian" is also found.[9]
The term "Sudeten Germans" (Sudetendeutsche) came about during rising
Before the First World War
Middle Ages and early modern period
There have been ethnic Germans living in the Bohemian crown lands since the Middle Ages.[11] In the late 12th and in the 13th century the Přemyslid rulers promoted the colonisation of certain areas of their lands by German settlers from the adjacent lands of Bavaria, Franconia, Upper Saxony and Austria during the Ostsiedlung migration.
In 1348, the
For centuries, German Bohemians played important roles in the economy and politics of the Bohemian lands.[12] For example, forest glass production was a common industry for German Bohemians. Though they were living beyond the medieval Kingdom of Germany, an independent German Bohemian awareness, however, was not widespread, and for a long time, it played no decisive role in everyday life. Individuals were usually seen as Bohemians, Moravians or Silesians. Defining events later in German Bohemian history were the Hussite Wars, the occupation of Bohemia by the Czech Brethren, the Thirty Years' War, when the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were severely affected, which caused the immigration of further German settlers.
After the death of King
Austria-Hungary
After the revolutions of 1848 and the rise of ethnic nationalism, nervousness about ethnic tensions in Austria-Hungary resulted in a prevailing equality between Czechs and German Bohemians.[14] Each ethnicity tried to retain, in regions in which it was the majority, sovereignty over its own affairs. Czechs and Germans generally maintained separate schools, churches and public institutions.[12] Nevertheless, despite the separation, Germans often understood some Czech, and Czechs often spoke some German. Cities like Prague, however, saw more mixing between the ethnicities and also had large populations of Jews; Germans living with Czechs fluently spoke Czech and code-switched between German and Czech when talking to Czechs and other Germans. Jews in Bohemia often spoke German and sometimes Yiddish. The famed writer Franz Kafka exemplifies the diversity of Bohemia since he was a Prague-based German-speaking Jew, but his surname was of Czech origin.[15]
In 1867, the equality of Austrian citizens of all ethnicities was guaranteed by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which enshrined the principles of constitutional monarchy. The agreement established the Dual Monarchy and gave the Hungarians sovereignty over their own affairs. The preservation of German cultural dominance throughout Cisleithania had proved to be difficult and now seemed to be was utterly impossible.[14]
With the agreement, the desire for an autonomous Czech subdivision was mounting. Both German Bohemians and Czechs were hoping for a constitutional solution to the demands, but Czech nationalist views remained a constant part of the Bohemian political sphere. The Czechs had feared
A symbol of the rising tensions was the fate of Charles University, then called Charles-Ferdinand University. Its Czech students had become increasingly perturbed by the sole use of German for instruction. During the 1848 revolution, both Germans and Czechs fought to make Czech one of the university's official languages.[17] They achieved that right, and the university became bilingual. By 1863, out of 187 lecture courses, 22 were held in Czech, the remainder being in German. In 1864, some Germans suggested the creation of a separate Czech university. Czech professors rejected that because they did not wish to lose the continuity of university traditions.[17]
The Czechs, however, were still not satisfied with bilingual status and proposed creating two separate constituent colleges, one for the Germans and one for the Czechs. The Germans vetoed the proposal and called for a full division of the university. After long negotiations, it was divided into the German Charles-Ferdinand University and the Czech Charles-Ferdinand University. The Cisleithanian Imperial Council prepared an act of parliament, and the emperor granted royal assent on 28 February 1882.[18]
In 1907, the Cisleithanian Imperial Council was for the first time elected by universal male suffrage.[19] As part of the process, new constituency boundaries had to be drawn throughout the empire. Electoral officials were very careful to demarcate areas as clearly either German or Czech and to assure that there would be no conflict as to which ethnicity had a majority in any constituency. Nevertheless, that did not settle tensions among Czechs, who wanted to govern themselves from Prague.
Archduke
Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye
The end of the war in 1918 brought about the partition of the multiethnic
The Austrian head of government, Ernst Seidler von Feuchtenegg, wanted to divide Bohemia by setting up administrative counties (Verwaltungskreise), which would be based on the nationalities of the population. On 26 September 1918, his successor, Max Hussarek von Heinlein, offered the Czechs wide-ranging autonomy within Imperial and Royal Austria. Also, Austria was no longer considered to be a major power by the victors of the war.[11]
Province of German Bohemia
On 14 October, Raphael Pacher succeeded, together with the social democrat, Josef Seliger, in uniting all German parties and members of parliament in Bohemia and Moravia into a coalition. In preparation for the foundation of the Republic of German Bohemia, the coalition, chaired by Pacher, appointed a committee of twelve members. One day after the proclamation of the Republic of Czechoslovakia, on 29 October 1918, the Province of German Bohemia was formed with its capital in Reichenberg. Its first governor was Raphael Pacher, who transferred his office on 5 November to Rudolf Lodgman von Auen.
The Province of German Bohemia comprised a contiguous region in North and West Bohemia stretching from the
In addition to the establishment of the state's governmental organisation, higher authorities were also created, such as the Finance Ministry, the Department of Agriculture and the Higher Regional Court of Reichenberg as well as a general post office and railway administration.
For geographical reasons, however, a territorial solution would have been impossible unless those regions, together with Austria, had been incorporated into Germany.[22]
After the Czechoslovak Republic was proclaimed on 28 October 1918, the German Bohemians, claiming the right to
On 4 March 1919, almost the entire ethnic German population peacefully demonstrated for its right to self-determination.[
American diplomat
Demography
In 1921, the population of multi-ethnic Czechoslovakia comprised 6.6 million Czechs, 3.2 million Germans, two million
Moravia contained many patches of ethnic German settlement in the north and the south. Most typical in those areas were German "language islands", towns inhabited by ethnic Germans but surrounded by rural Czechs. Extreme German nationalism was never prevalent in those areas. German nationalism in the coal-mining region of southern Silesia, which was 40.5% German, was restrained by fear of competition from industry in the Weimar Republic.
Gradual general acceptance of Czechoslovak citizenship
Many Germans felt that the new constitution failed to fulfil what the Czechs had promised in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) because there were too few minority rights. However, they gradually accepted remaining in Czechoslovakia and took part in the first elections in 1920. In 1926, the first Germans became minister (Robert Mayr-Harting and Franz Spina), and the first German political party became part of the government (German Christian Social People's Party and Farmers' League).[25]
Politics
German nationalist sentiment ran high during the early years of the republic. Sudeten representatives tried to join Austria or Germany or at least to obtain as much autonomy. The constitution of 1920 was drafted without Sudeten German representation,[citation needed] and Sudetens declined to participate in the election of the president. Sudeten political parties pursued an "obstructionist" (or negativist) policy in the Czechoslovak parliament. In 1926, however, German Chancellor Gustav Stresemann, adopting a policy of rapprochement with the West, advised the Sudeten Germans to co-operate actively with the Czechoslovak government. In consequence, most Sudeten German parties (including the German Agrarian Party, the German Social Democratic Party and the German Christian Socialist People's Party) changed their policy from negativism to activism, and several Sudeten politicians even accepted cabinet posts.
At a party conference in
Already in 1936, Jaksch, together with Hans Schütz of the German Christian Social People's Party (Deutsche Christlich-Soziale Volkspartei) and Gustav Hacker of the Farmers' Association (Bund der Landwirte, formed the Jungaktivisten (Young Activists). They sought agreement with the Czechoslovak government on a policy that could withstand the Nazi onslaught from within and from outside Czechoslovakia. At simultaneous mass rallies in Tetschen-Bodenbach/Děčín, Saaz/Žatec and Olešnice v Orlických horách/Gießhübl im Adlergebirge on April 26, 1936, they demanded equal opportunities in civil service for Germans, financial assistance for German businesses, official acceptance of the German language for public servants in the Sudetenland and measures to reduce unemployment in the Sudetenland. (At the time, one in three was unemployed in the Sudetenland, compared to one in five in the rest of the country.) Improving the quality of life of the Sudeten Germans was not the only motivation of the Jungaktivists. For Jaksch and his social democratic compatriots, it was a question of survival after a possible Nazi takeover. Of some 80,000 social democrats in Czechoslovakia, only about 5,000 would manage to flee the Nazis. The rest were incarcerated, and many of them were executed. Many of those who survived the Nazi persecution were later expelled, together with other Sudeten Germans, on the basis of Beneš decrees.
By 1929, only a small number of Sudeten German deputies, most of them members of the German National Party, supported by the propertied classes, and the German National Socialist Workers' Party, remained opposed to the Czechoslovak government. Nationalist sentiment flourished, however, among Sudeten German youths, who had a variety of organizations, such as the older Deutsche Turnverband and Schutzvereine, the Kameradschaftsbund, the Nazi Volkssport (1929) and the Bereitschaft.
Rise of Nazis
The Sudeten German nationalists, particularly the Nazis, expanded their activities after the Depression started. On 30 January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor of Germany. The Czechoslovak government prepared to suppress the Sudeten Nazi Party. In the autumn of 1933, the Sudeten Nazis dissolved their organization, and the German Nationals were pressured to do likewise. The government expelled German Nationals and Sudeten Nazis from local government positions. The Sudeten German population was indignant, especially in nationalist strongholds like Egerland.
On 1 October 1933, Konrad Henlein with his deputy, Karl Hermann Frank, aided by other members of the Kameradschaftsbund, a youth organization of mystical orientation, created a new political organisation. The Sudeten German Home Front (Sudetendeutsche Heimatfront) professed loyalty to Czechoslovakia but championed decentralization. It absorbed most former German Nationals and Sudeten Nazis. The Kameradschaftsbund under Henlein did not promote joining Germany, but campaigned for decentralised Czechoslovakia based on the model of Switzerland; Henlein promoted a separate Sudeten German identity, using the term sudetendeutscher Stamm (Sudeten German tribe).[26] Before 1937, Henlein was critical of Adolf Hitler and advocated for the ideas of liberalism and individualism. However, Henlein's movement was growing increasingly divided and his own position soon became precarious. Henlein suffered a severe blow to his reputation as well as political influence when his mentor, Heinz Rutha, was accused of homosexuality and committed suicide in prison. The radical wing of the party pressured Henlein to resign, and the Czechoslovak security forces increased their efforts to frustrate the movement's activities. Ronald Smelser noted that "backed to the wall, Henlein took what he thought to be the only step left to rescue his own position and the unity of his movement: he wrote a letter to Adolf Hitler."[27] Henlein started secretly cooperating with the German government and the underground Nazi movement.[27]
In 1935, the Sudeten German Home Front became the Sudeten German Party (Sudetendeutsche Partei) (SdP) and embarked on an active propaganda campaign. In the May election, the SdP won more than 60% of the Sudeten German vote. The German Agrarians, Christian Socialists and Social Democrats each lost approximately half of their followers. The SdP became the centre of German nationalist forces. The party represented itself as striving for a just settlement of Sudeten German claims within the framework of Czechoslovak democracy. Henlein, however, maintained secret contact with Nazi Germany and received material aid from Berlin, which told him to refuse every concession offered by Czechoslovakia. The SdP endorsed the idea of a Führer and mimicked Nazi methods with banners, slogans and uniformed troops. Concessions offered by the Czechoslovak government, including the installation of exclusively Sudeten German officials in Sudeten German areas and the possible participation of the SdP in the cabinet, were rejected. Nevertheless, the party campaigned on autonomy for the Sudetenland and pledged allegiance to the Czechoslovak stance; a majority of SdP voters supported regional autonomy and did not desire to join the German state.[28][29] Elizabeth Wiskemann remarked that "when Henlein repeated to his English friends in London as late as May 1938 that he still wished for autonomy within the Czechoslovak State, whether he was speaking sincerely or not, he was expressing the wishes of a very considerable proportion of his followers".[30] According to Ralf Gebel, "the majority had voted for a party that united the Sudeten Germans and aimed to improve their position within the Czechoslovak Republic — no more and no less".[31] Johann Wolfgang Brügel also highlights that although Henlein became "Hitler's paladin", the SdP of 1935 represented a "conglomerate of practically all [political] colourings", and the opinion of the general Sudeten German population only supported autonomy within Czechoslovakia.[32]
On 13 March 1938, the
Czechoslovak Chamber of Deputies (1920–1935)
The table below shows the number of seats German parties and German–Hungarian lists gained in the Czechoslovak Chamber of Deputies between 1920 and 1935.
Party or List[40] | Seats 1920 | Seats 1925 | Seats 1929 | Seats 1935 | Votes 1935 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sudeten German Party | – | – | – | 44 | 1.256.010 |
German National Party | – | 10 | 7 | – | – |
German National Socialist Workers Party
|
15 | 17 | 8 | – | – |
German Social Democratic Workers Party
|
31 | 17 | 21 | 11 | 300.406 |
German Christian Social People's Party | 7 | 13 | 14 | 6 | 163.666 |
German Union of Farmers | 11 | 24 | – | 5 | 142.775 |
Hungarian Parties and Sudeten German Electoral Bloc | 9 | 4 | 9 | 9 | 292.847 |
United German Parties | 6 | – | 16 | – | – |
Total (out of 300 seats) | 79 | 85 | 75 | 75 |
- Hungarian Parties and Sudeten German Electoral Bloc (1935): German Democratic Liberal Party, German Industrialist Party, Party of German Nation, Sudeten German Land Union, German Workers Party, Zips German Party, Provincial Christian Social Party, Hungarian National Party[41]
Munich Agreements
Konrad Henlein met with Hitler in Berlin on 28 March 1938 and was told to raise demands that would be unacceptable to the Czechoslovak government. In the Carlsbad Decrees, issued on 24 April at the Carlsbad convention, the SdP demanded complete autonomy for the Sudetenland and freedom to profess Nazi ideology. If Henlein's demands had been granted, the Sudetenland would have been in a position to align itself with Nazi Germany.
As the political situation worsened, the security in Sudetenland deteriorated. The region became the site of small-scale clashes between young SdP followers, equipped with arms smuggled from Germany, and police and border forces. In some places, the regular army was called in to pacify the situation. Nazi propaganda accused the Czech government and Czechs of atrocities on innocent Germans. The Czechoslovaki public started to prepare for an inevitable war, such as by training with gas masks.
On 20 May, Czechoslovakia initiated a so-called "partial mobilization" (literally "special military precaution") in response to rumours of German troop movements. The army moved into position on the border. Western powers tried to calm down the situation and forced Czechoslovakia to comply with most of the Carlsbad Decrees. However the SdP, instructed to continue to push towards war, escalated the situation with more protests and violence.
With the help of special Nazi forces, the Sudetendeutsche Freikorps (paramilitary groups trained in Germany by SS-instructors) took over some border areas and committed many crimes: they killed more than 110 Czechoslovaks (mostly soldiers and policemen) and kidnapped over 2,020 Czechoslovak citizens (including German antifascists), taking them to Nazi Germany.[42]
In August, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain sent Lord Runciman, a faithful appeaser,[43] to Czechoslovakia to see if he could obtain a settlement between the Czechoslovak government and the Sudeten Germans. His mission failed because Henlein refused all conciliating proposals under secret orders by Hitler.[44][45][46][47]
The
Czech officials and Czech police, speaking little or no German, were appointed in large numbers to purely German districts; Czech agricultural colonists were encouraged to settle on land confiscated under the Land Reform in the middle of German populations; for the children of these Czech invaders Czech schools were built on a large scale; there is a very general belief that Czech firms were favoured as against German firms in the allocation of State contracts and that the State provided work and relief for Czechs more readily than for Germans. I believe these complaints to be in the main justified. Even as late as the time of my Mission, I could find no readiness on the part of the Czechoslovak Government to remedy them on anything like an adequate scale... the feeling among the Sudeten Germans until about three or four years ago was one of hopelessness. But the rise of Nazi Germany gave them new hope. I regard their turning for help towards their kinsmen and their eventual desire to join the Reich as a natural development in the circumstances.
Britain and France then pressured the Czechoslovak government into ceding the Sudetenland to Germany on 21 September. The Munich Agreement, signed September 29 by Britain, France, Germany and Italy and negotiated without Czechoslovak participation, only confirmed that decision and the negotiated details. Czechoslovakia ceded a German-defined maximalist extension of Sudetenland to Germany, including the Škoda Works; near Pilsen, they had been Czechoslovakia's primary armaments factory.
As a result, Bohemia and Moravia lost about 38 percent of their combined area, and 3.65 million inhabitants (2.82 million Germans[49] and approximately 513,000 – 750,000[49][50] Czechs to Germany).
Under Nazi rule
Some 250,000 Germans remained on the Czech side of the border, which later became part of the Reich by the establishment of the
With the establishment of German rule, hundreds of thousands of Czechs who (under the policy of Czechification) had moved into the Sudetenland after 1919 left the area, some willingly. They were, however, permitted to take away their possessions and to legally sell their houses and land. A few, however, remained.[52]
In elections held on 4 December 1938, 97.32% of the adult population in Sudetenland voted for the NSDAP (most of the rest were Czechs who were allowed to vote as well). About half a million Sudeten Germans joined the Nazi Party, which amounted to 17.34% of the German population in the Sudetenland (the average in Nazi Germany was 7.85%). Because of their knowledge of the Czech language, many Sudeten Germans were employed in the administration of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia as well as in the Nazi oppressive machinery such as the Gestapo. The most notable was Karl Hermann Frank, the SS and Police general and Secretary of State in the Protectorate.
After the establishment of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, almost all Bohemian and Moravian Jews, many of whom were primarily German-speaking, were
Expulsion and transfer
In the aftermath of World War II, when the Czechoslovak state was restored, the government expelled the majority of ethnic Germans (about 3 million altogether), in the belief that their behaviour had been a major cause of the war and subsequent destruction. In the months directly following the end of the war, "wild" expulsions happened from May until August 1945. Several Czechoslovak statesmen encouraged such expulsions with polemical speeches. Generally local authorities ordered the expulsions, which armed volunteers carried out. In some cases the regular army initiated or assisted such expulsions.[53] Several thousand Germans were murdered during the expulsion, and many more died from hunger and illness as a consequence of becoming refugees.
The regular transfer of ethnic nationals among nations, authorized according to the
Even the German-speaking
The Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft claims to represent the German refugees from the former Czechoslovak Republic, but its conservative positions were and are discussed very controversially among the refugees themselves, with many choosing not to associate with the organization. In the 2001 census, 39,106 people in the Czech Republic claimed German ethnicity.[58] In theory, with the accession of the Czech Republic into the European Union, refugee Sudeten Germans and their descendants (or for that matter, also Germans with no previous link to the Bohemian lands) could have moved back there without needing the Czech government's permission – but in practice such a move did not materialize in any significant numbers, as they could not reclaim property and many were well established in Germany.
In other countries
Argentina
Although to a lesser extent than the Volga Germans, Sudeten Germans also immigrated to Argentina. Some groups settled in different German colonies in the Misiones Province.
Particularly notable is the case of the German businessman Oskar Schindler and his wife Emilie Schindler, who lived in Argentina for a few years.
Likewise, Argentina-based Princess
Chile
In 1877, a group of Sudeten Germans from the city of Braunau (historical region of Bohemia, then located in the
In the 1930s, the Chilean businesswoman Antonia Inalaf decided to finance a project to emigrate Sudeten Germans to Chile. This group of Germans came from the city of Rossbach (currently
Following the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia at the end of World War II, a new group of Sudeten Germans immigrated to Chile, either to settle in Puyuhuapi or in other German colonies in the south of the country.[60]
Spain
Before World War II broke out, Prince Maximilian Eugene of Hohenlohe-Langenburg decided to take refuge in Spain. Similarly, after the war, all of his assets were confiscated through the Beneš Decrees. However, the fortune of his wife's family prevented him from falling out of favor. In Spain, one of his sons, Prince Alfonso, founded the Marbella Club Hotel, thus beginning the Marbella Golden Mile, which he catapulted as a destination for international luxury tourism, which since then has generated great wealth for Spain.
Paraguay
On October 1, 1933, some families of Sudeten Germans founded the "Colonia Sudetia" in the Paso Yobai district, Guairá Department.[61] In the beginning the colony was difficult for them, since most of them were not farmers but had other professions, but they soon knew how to adapt and today the community is the seat of large yerba mate factories.
Languages
Various Sudeten German dialects are currently practically extinct as most Germans were expelled from Czechoslovakia: present Sudeten Germans speak mainly Czech and/or Standard German.
See also
- Occupation of Czechoslovakia
- Beneš decrees
- Sudeten German Homeland Association
- History of Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)
- Ethnic minorities in Czechoslovakia
References
- ^ "Expellee 'Provocation': Prague Refuses Apology to Sudeten Germans". Der Spiegel. June 14, 2011.
- ^ "Czech Statistical Office". Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2011-08-09.
- ^ Otto Bauer. The Question of Nationalities and Social Democracy (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota press, 2000), p. 160
- ^ Statistický lexikon obcí v Republice československé I. Země česká. Prague. 1934.
{{cite book}}
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Statistický lexikon obcí v Republice československé II. Země moravskoslezská. Prague. 1935.{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "The German Bohemia Province". czech-stamps.org. Archived from the original on 6 January 2014. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
- ^ http://www.thesocialcontract.com/pdf/six-four/bohemian.pdf [bare URL PDF]
- ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05
- ISBN 978-3-486-58374-8. Retrieved 2 April 2018 – via www.muni.cz.
- ^ "Deutsche Biographie". lrz-muenchen.de. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
- ^ "The Sudeten Germans' forgotten fate". 7 February 2004. Retrieved 2 April 2018 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
- ^ ISBN 3-88680-773-8. (Teil eines zehnbändigen Gesamtwerks)
- ^ a b "The Germans in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia : with two maps". [Berlin? : Staatsdruckerei. Retrieved 2 April 2018 – via Internet Archive.
- ISBN 978-3-15-010655-6.
- ^ a b Nationalbibliothek, Österreichische. "ALEX – Historische Rechts- und Gesetzestexte". alex.onb.ac.at. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
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- ISBN 0-521-43155-7. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
- ^ a b "History of Charles University". cuni.cz. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
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- ISBN 1-85973-627-0(Mommsen).
- ISBN 3-88680-200-0. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
- ^ Act, StGBl. No. 40 and state proclamation, StGBl. Nr. 41/1918 (= p. 51).
- ISBN 3-428-09101-9, p. 127.
- ^ "Center for Austrian Studies". Austrian Studies | College of Liberal Arts. 22 September 2023.
- ^ Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States 1919 – the Paris Peace Conference, Volume XII. Washington. pp. 273–274.
- ^ "Hitler's Fifth Column". Radio Prague. December 12, 2002.
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- ^ ISBN 978-0819540775.
- JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctt1287dwq.8.
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- ^ Johann Wolfgang Brügel [in German] (1967). Tschechen und Deutsche, 1918–1938 (in German). München: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung. p. 267.
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- ^ Claudia Breit Whiteus (2010). A Struggle for Existence: Explaining the Actions, Motives and Fall of German Social Democracy in the First Czechoslovak Republic. Budapest: CEU eTD Collection.
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- ^ Bildung, Bundeszentrale für politische (6 November 2002). "Republik unter Druck – bpb". www.bpb.de. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
- ^ ""Prager Tagblatt", Nr. 116, May 18, 1935, Tschechoslowakische Parlamentswahl vom 19. 5. 1935". Archived from the original on February 23, 2007. Retrieved March 9, 2012.
- ^ ISBN 3-88474-770-3)
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- ^ Král, Václav (ed.): Die Deutschen in der Tschechoslowakei 1933–1947. Dokumentensammlung. Praha 1964.
- ^ Alfred de Zayas, "Anglo-American Responsibility for the Expulsion of the Germans, 1944–48", (Pittsburg lecture, published in Vardy/Tooley Ethnic Cleansing in 20th Century Europe pp. 239–254) p. 243
- ^ a b "K otázce vysídlení občanů ČSR ze Sudet, Těšínska, Podkarpatské Rusi a Slovenské republiky v letech 1938/1939". Archived from the original on 2014-12-02. Retrieved 2014-12-02.
- ^ Doležal, Bohumil. "Fakta o vyhnání Čechů ze Sudet". www.bohumildolezal.cz. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
- ^ Smlouva mezi Česko-Slovenskou republikou a Německou říší o otázkách státního občanství a opce, law no. 300/1938 Sb.
- ^ "Die Sudetendeutsche Geschichte". dbb-ev.de. Archived from the original on 25 February 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
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- ^ "Memories of World War II in the Czech Lands: the expulsion of Sudeten Germans – Radio Prague". radio.cz. 14 April 2005. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
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- ^ "home". Archived from the original on 2019-07-08. Retrieved 2013-02-26.
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- ^ "Puyuhuapi History and Legends". InterPatagonia. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
- ^ Un pueblo alemán en el sur de Chile in Deutsche Welle
- ^ Festejan el 85 aniversario de la Colonia Sudetia de Paso Yobái – Centinela – ABC Color
Further reading
- Bahm, Karl F. (1999). "The Inconveniences of Nationality: German Bohemians, The Disintegration of the Habsburg Monarchy, and the Attempt to Create a "Sudeten German" Identity". Nationalities Papers. 27 (3): 375–405. S2CID 159787416.
- Cohen, Gary B. (2006). The Politics of Ethnic Survival: Germans in Prague, 1861-1914. Purdue University Press. ISBN 978-1-55753-404-0.
- Kopecek, Herman (March 1996). "Zusammenarbeit and spolupráce: Sudeten German-Czech cooperation in interwar Czechoslovakia". S2CID 161636833.
- S2CID 162202069.
- Bosl, Karl: Handbuch der Geschichte der böhmischen Länder (4 Bände). Anton Hiersemann Verlag Stuttgart, 1970.
- Douglas, R.M.: Orderly and Humane. The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. ISBN 978-0-30016-660-6.
- Franzel, Emil: Sudetendeutsche Geschichte. Adam Kraft Verlag Augsburg, 1958.
- Franzel, Emil: Die Sudetendeutschen. Aufstieg Verlag München, 1980.
- Kleineberg, A.; Marx, Ch.; Knobloch, E.; Lelgemann, D.: Germania und die Insel Thule. Die Entschlüsselung von Ptolemaios` "Atlas der Oikumene". WBG.2010. ISBN 978-3-534-23757-9.
- Meixner Rudolf: Geschichte der Sudetendeutschen. Helmut Preußler Verlag Nürnberg, 1988. ISBN 3-921332-97-4.
External links
- Facing history — The evolution of Czech-German relations in the Czech provinces, 1848–1948: historical publication sponsored by Czech government; series of PDFfiles
- Emotions prevail in relations between Germans, Czechs, Poles – poll, Czech Happenings, 21 December 2005
- "A Journey into Czechoslovakia after the Munich Agreement" – a report issued by BBC journalist Sir Ralph Murray at the time of the Czechoslovak evacuation from the Sudetenland after the Munich Agreement.